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G. K. Gilbert. 



f W. B. No. 143- 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

WEATHER BUREAU. 

Bnlletin B. 



F^LOODS 



OF THE 



MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



PREPARED TINDBR DIRBCTION OF 

WILLIS L. MOORE, 

CHIEF OF WBATHER BURBAU. 



BY 



PARK MORRILL, 

FORECAST OFFICIAI<, IN CHARGE OF RIVER AND FI,OOD SERVICE. 




WASHINGTON: 

WEATHER BUREAU. 
1897. 



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W. B. No. 143. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

WEATHERBUREAU. 3 '^.y' 

Bulletin E. 



F^LOODS 



OF THE 



MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



PREPARED UXDER DIRECTION OF 

WILLIS L. MOORE, 

CHIEF OF WEATHER BUREAU. 



BY 



PARK MORRILL, 

); 
FORECAST OFFICIAI,, IN CHARGE OF RIVER AND FLOOD SERVICE. 




WASHINGTON: 

WEATHER BUREAU 
1897. 



'r-l 






NOV 6 190b 



CO 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



SECTION I. 

THE RIVER AND BASIN. 



Page. 



Introduction 

^ 

Scope of the work. 

Sources of information ". 2 

Work of Delta Sur\-ey, River Commissions, and Weather Biu-eau. 

The drainage basin 

Comparison of the Mississippi with other river s3-stems. — Extent of the basin. — Svibdivisions of the Missis 
sippi drainage basin. 

Ohio basin 

Character of the basin. — The Ohio river. — -Smaller divisions of the Ohio basin. 

Upper Mississippi basin 6 

The Upper Mississippi river. — Characler and extent of the basin. 

Missouri basin '. , 

Extent and diversified characler. — The Missouri river, 

Arkansas basin 

Character of the basin.^The upper Arkansas river. — The lower Arkansas river. 

Red basin lo 

Characler of the basin. — The Red river. — Outlet bayous of the lower Red. 

Central Valley' . 12 

Extent of the Central Vallej-. — Basins of the Kaskaskia and Meramec rivers. — Basin of the St. Francis 
river. — St. Francis bottom. — Basins of the Obion and Hatchee rivers. — Basin of the Yazoo river. — The 
Yazoo bottom. — The Tensas bottom. — Basins of the Big Black and Homochitto rivers. — Extent of the 
Delta. — Charadler of the Delta. — General features of the Central \'alley. 

Lower Mississippi river 15 

The alluvial plain. — Chara6ler of the Lower Mississippi river. — Dimensions of the river. — Slope of the 
water siurface. — Mouths of the Mississippi. — Mississippi levees. 



SECTION 11. 

NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 

Downfall and drainage 18 

Their relation. — Method of determining downfall. 
Measurement of precipitation 19 

Errors in hyetal measurements. — Magnitude of rain-gauge errors. — Cause of error is the wind. 
Normal amount of precipitation 20 

Proper method of determining normal precipitation. — The isohj-etal charts. — Geographical distribution of 
precipitation. — Seasonal changes in distribution. 
Normal precipitation on the watersheds 24 

Method of its computation. — Average precipitation on the various watersheds. 
Normal downfall of water 25 

Downfall in the six chief diNnsions of the Mississippi basin, 

III 



IV CONTENTS. 

Normal discharge of the ri\"ers 26 

Determination of discharge. — Available data. — Computation of normal discharge. — Remarks upon the 
computed discharges. — Differences in nontial drainage. 

Normal river stages 28 

Measurement of the stage of a river. — ^'alue of river stage measurements. — Stations seledled for study. — 
Method of computing normals. — Normal regimen of the rivers. — Mean and extreme river stages. — 
Nonnal monthly stages. 



SECTION III. 

THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 

Constant liabilitj- to flood in the alluvial regions 33 

Floods of this century 33 

Notable floods. — Floods since 1870. — Frequenc}' and diu'ation of floods. — Chief floods of the past quarter- 
century. 
Study of recent floods 38 

Six floods seledled for study. — Precipitation in the six floods. — Downfall in the six floods. 
Flood of 1882 40 

Its two swells. — The downfall which caused it. — Origin of the flood. 
Flood of 18S3 41 

Its single great rise. — The accompanj-ing precipitation. 
Flood of 18S4 42 

Its main features. — Distribution of rainfall. 
Flood of 1890 43 

The rise in three swells. — Origin of the flood. 
Flood of 1893 43 

A summer flood. — The cause of it. 
Flood of 1897 44 

Its chief features. — The rainfall and probable drainage. — Source of the flood. 
Comparison and cause of floods 45 

Relative importance of these six floods. — Cause of Mississippi floods. 



SECTION IV. 

SPRING FTOOD OF 1S97. 

Flood of 1897 47 

Special reports on this year's flood. — Extent of the overflow. — Losses by the flood. — Work of the Weather 
Bureau. 

The Ohio river 49 

Sources to Wheeling, W. Va. — Wheeling to Point Pleasant, W. Va. — Point Pleasant to Lawrenceburg, 
Ind. — Lawrenceburg to Mount Vernon, Ind. — Mount Vernon to the movitli. — Tennessee river. 

The Upper Mississippi river 56 

Sources to Reeds Landing, Minn. — Reeds Landing to North McGregor, Iowa. — North McGregor to Clin- 
ton, Iowa. — Clinton to Burlington, Iowa. — Burlington to Ouinc)-, 111. — Ouincy to Louisiana, Mo. — 
Louisiana to the mouth of the Missouri river. 

The Missouri river 61 

Sources to Fort Yates, N. Dak. — Fort Yates to Chamberlain, S. Dak. — Chamberlain to Vermilion, S. 
Dak. — Vermilion to the Little Sioirx river. — Little Sioux river to Atchison, Kans. — Atchison to the 
mouth. 

The Arkansas river 67 

Sources to Dodge City, Kans. — Dodge City to the southern border of Kansas. — Southern border of Kansas 
to Dardanelle, Ark. — Dardanelle to the mouth. 

The Red river 69 

The Lower Mississippi river 6g 

St. Louis, Mo., to Chester, 111.— Chester to New Madrid, Mo.— New Madrid to Helena, Ark.— Effedt of the 
St. Francis levee. — Helena to Vicksburg, Miss. — Vicksburg to the mouth. 



LIST OF PLATES. 



Plate I. — Drainage basin of the Mississippi river. 

Plate II, — Alluvial regions of the Mississippi and the overflowed area of 1S97. 

Plate III. — Normal hydrographs for the year. 

Plate IV. — Normal annual precipitation. 

Plate V. — Normal precipitation for Januar}-. 

Plate VI. — Normal precipitation for Februar}'. 

Plate VII. — Normal precipitation for March. 

Plate VIII. — Normal precipitation for April. 

Plate IX. — Normal precipitation for Ma}'. 

Plate X. — Normal precipitation for June. 

Plate XI. — Norinal precipitation for Jul}'. 

Plate XII. — Normal precipitation for August. 

Plate XIII. — Normal precipitation for September. 

Plate XIV. — Normal precipitation for October. 

Plate XV. — Normal precipitation for Noveml^er. 

Plate XVI. — Normal precipitation for December. 

Plate XVII. — Precipitation, January, 1882. 

Plate XVIII. — Precipitation, February, 1S82. 

Plate XIX.— Precipitation, March, 1882. 

Plate XX. — Departure from normal precipitation, January, 1SS2. 

Plate XXI. — Departure from normal precipitation, Februars', 1882. 

Plate XXII. — Departure from normal precipitation, Januar}' i to February 28, 18S2. 

Plate XXIII.— Hydrographs for fl.ood of 1882. 

Plate XXIV. — Precipitation, Januar}', 1883. 

Plate XXV.— Precipitation, February, 1SS3. 

Plate XXVI.— Precipitation, March, 1883. 

Plate XXVII. — Departure from normal precipitation, January, 18S3. • 

Plate. XXVIII. — Departure from normal precipitation, February, 1S83. 

Plate XXIX. — Departure from normal precipitation, Januarj- i to Februarj' 28, 1883. 

Plate XXX. — Hj'drographs for flood of 1883. 

Plate XXXI. — Precipitation, January-, 18S4. 

Plate XXXII. — Precipitation, February, 1884. 

Plate XXXIII.— Precipitation, March, 1884. 

Plate XXIV. — Departure from normal precipitation, January, 1884. 

Plate XXXV. — Departm-e from normal precipitation, Februarv, 1S84. 

Plate XXXVI. — Departure from normal precipitation, January i to February 29. 18S4. 

Plate XXXVII.— Hydrographs for flood of 18S4. 

Plate XXXVIII. — Precipitation, Januai-y, 1890. 

Plate XXXIX. — Precipitation, Februarj', 1890. 

Plate XL. — Precipitation, March, 1890. 

Plate XLI. — Departure from normal precipitation, February, rSgo. 

Plate XI/II. — Departure from normal precipitation, March, i8go. 

Plate XLIII. — Departure from normal precipitation, February i to March 31, 1890. 

Plate XLIV. — Hydrographs for flood of iSgo. 

Plate XI/V. — Precipitation, April, 1893. 

Plate XLVI.— Precipitation, May, 1893. 

Plate XLVII. — Precipitation, June, 1893. 

PlaLe XLVIII. — Departure from normal precipitation, April, 1893. 

Plate XLIX. — Departui'e from normal precipitation. May, 1893. 

Plate L. — Departure from normal precipitation, April i to May 31, 1893. 

Plate LI. — Hydrographs for flood of 1893. 

Plate LII. — Precipitation, January, 1S97. 

Plate LIII. ^Precipitation, February, 1897. 

Plate LIV.. — Precipitation, March, 1897. 

Plate LV. — Departure from normal precipitation, February, 1897. 

Plate LVI. — Departure from normal precipitation, Marcli, 1897. 

Plate LVII, — Departure from normal precipitation, February i to March 31, 1S97. 

Plate LVIII. — Hydrographs for flood of 1897. 



TABLES. 



Table I. — Grand divisions of the Mississippi basin. 

Table II. — Subdivisions of the Ohio basin. 

Table III. — Subdivisions of the Upper Mississippi basin. 

Table IV. — Subdivisions of the Mi.ssouri Ijasin. 

Table V. — Subdivisions of the Arkansas basin. 

Table VI. — Subdivisions of the Red basin. 

Table VII. — Subdivisions of the Central Valley. 

Table VIII. — Mean dimensions of the Lower Mississippi. 

Table IX. — Mean slope of the Lower Mississippi. 

Table X. — Deficits of rain-gauge catch. 

Table XI. — Normal monthly and annual precipitation. 

Table XII.— Normal precipitation in river basins. 

Table XIII. — Normal monthlj- and annual downfall in river basins. 

Table XIV. — Normal annual discharge from river basins. 

Table XV. — Normal and extreme river stages, referred to the plane of lowest water. 

Table XVI. — Normal monthly river stages, referred to the plane of lowest water. 

Table XVII. — Flood heights for great floods from 182S, referred to the flood level of 1S58. 

Table XVIII. — Floods and highest waters in the Lower Mississippi for each year from 1S72 to 1S97, inclusive. 

Table XIX. — Precipitation in six floods. 

Table XX. — Departure from normal downfall in six floods. 

Table XXI. — Heights of six floods, stages referred to local danger line. 

Table XXII. — Extent of overflow areas. 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, 

Washington^ D. C, October /, i8gj. 

Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper upon the floods of the Missis- 
sippi river, and especially the notable flood of last spring, which has been prepared 
under my personal supervision by Mr. Park Morrill, Forecast Offlcial, in charge of the 
River and Flood Service, and to recommend its publication as a bulletin of the 
Weather Bureau. The effort has been made to briefly cover the entire regimen of the 
river, both in its normal condition and in flood. The physical characteristics of the 
Mississippi basin and river have been reviewed, and the best data available as to area of 
watersheds, dimensions and slope of the main stream and its tributaries, are given, 
largelj' in tabular form, convenient for reference. 

The records of the Weather Bureau have been used to determine the normal pre- 
cipitation for each month and for the j-ear. The charts of normal precipitation which 
accompany the paper are thought to be the most accurate yet prepared for the region 
covered, which is pradfically all that portion of the United States lying east of the 
Great Divide. The resultant downfall of water over the various subdivisions of the 
grand basin has been computed, and is presented in the tables. Normal river stages at 
various, stations have been computed, and are here published for the first time, so far as 
known. The chart of normal hydrographs drawn from these data is instrudlive, show- 
ing at a glance the annual rise and fall of the Mississippi and its chief feeders. Other 
fa6ls as to extreme stages of the rivers, the volume of discharge, and similar matters, 
have been collated from many sources, and are here presented in convenient form. 

Having treated of the normal conditions of water supply and drainage throughout 
the basin, the subjedl of floods is next considered at some length. The floods occur- 
ring during the past twenty-six years are made the chief subject of study, inasmuch 
as only during that time are complete and reliable gauge readings available. Six nota- 
ble flood 3'^ears are embraced in this period, and for these six floods h3-drographs have 
been drawn for several typical stations. The downfall of water from which each flood 
arose has been computed, and the results are given in tabular form. Corresponding 
charts of aftual precipitation and of the departure from the normal precipitation have 
also been construdfed for each flood, and accompany- the report. Through our own 
observers, and from the investigations of the engineer officers in charge of levee work, 
a map of the region inundated this year has been prepared, and forms an interesting 
accompaniment to the paper. 
Respe6lfully, 

Willis L. Moore, 
Cliief of JJ'cat/icr Bureau. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



SECTION I. 

THE RIVER AND BASIN. 

Introductory. — Sources of information. — The drainage basin. — Ohio basin. — Upper Mississippi basin. — Missoiui basin. — 
Arkansas basin. — Red basin. — Central valley. — Lower Mississippi river. 

IT is proposed in the present paper to consider briefly the chief characteristics 
of the Mississippi river, and of the basin that is drained by it and its numerous 
tributaries. In view of the great importance of this river S3^stem to a large 
part of the inhabitants of the United States, of whom, according to the census of 1890, 
twenty-seven and a half millions, in round numbers, dwell in its basin, it is thought 
that such a paper will be of interest and value. This is further assured because of the 
great loss of property and danger to life sometimes incurred through the floods of the 
Lower Mississippi, which may be in part avoided by timely prevision. It is proposed 
to bring together from various sources the chief fadls as to the physical characteristics 
of the catchment basin. To this will succeed data as to its precipitation and drainage 
under normal conditions, better information with respedl to which is now obtainable 
than has been anywhere brought together in a convenient form. Lastl}-, the floods of 
the Lower Mississippi will be considered, and especiall}- that of the present year. The 
subjeA naturally separates itself into these divisions, and will be treated in the above 
order. 

SOURCES OF INFORM.\TION. 

I. Work of Delia Surz'ey., River Comtrn'sswus^ and IVeat/ier Bureau. — The first 
thorough and systematic investigation of the regimen of the Mississippi River was 
made b}- the Delta Sun'C}', organized b}- a6l of Congress in 1850. The final report of 
the surve}^ and investigations instituted, was made in 1S61 by Capt. A. A. Humphrevs 
and Lieut. Henry L. Abbot. Their report has remained to the present time the main 
authorit}^ as to the physical features of the river. By an adl of Congress, passed in 
187 1, the Secretary of War was directed to establish gauges at various points on the 
Mississippi and its principal tributaries, and daily observations of these gauges have 
been made ever since under the direction of the Engineer Corps. In 1879 the Mis- 
sissippi River Commission was created, and has accurately surveyed the course of the 
Mississippi, and determined its slope by precise levels. Additional gauges have been 
established, so that its daily stage is now recorded at intervals of about 50 miles. The 

3 



4 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

Missouri River Commission was organized in 1S84, and lias done similar work iipon 
the Missouri. The Weather Bureaii began in 1873 to collect the daily readings of 
river gauges by telegraph, and to publish them for the benefit of river commerce. 
Besides the presentation of the current stages of ri^'ers, it early inaugurated a S3-stem 
of flood warnings, for which the telegraphic collection of river stages and rainfall gave 
especial opportunity. In the prosecution of this work man}- gauges have been estab- 
lished, largely tipon the smaller tributaries, which were not embraced in the work of 
other departments of the Government. As a result of these various labors, there has 
been accumulated a large quantit}- of obser\-ations and other data, relating to the ]\Iis- 
sissippi and its tributar}' rivers. Moreover, since the creation of the Weather Biireau 
in 1870, the precipitation, as well as other meteorological subjedls, has been carefullj- 
investigated for the whole country-, and a knowledge of the precipitation over its basin, 
as well as of the regimen of the river itself, in order to full}- understand the latter, is 
clearl}- necessar}-. 

THE DRAINAGE BASIN. 

2 . Comparison of the Mississippi zuitJi other river systems. — Through a fault}- nomen- 
clature, the Mississippi river is only 2,485 miles in length. In point of fac5l the Missotiri 
is the proper prolongation of the main river, the Upper Mississippi being in realit}' one of 
its less important tributaries. From the mouth of the Mississippi to the sources of the 
Missouri, the river distance is about 4,190 miles, constituting possiblv the longest water- 
wa}^ in the world. Its onl}- rivals in length are the Nile and the Amazon, the precise 
length of neither of which is known, but is estimated for each at about 4,000 miles. 
The region drained by the Mississippi embraces about 1,240,050 square miles, or 41 
per cent of the total area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska. In the extent of 
its drainage area the IMississippi is probabl}- surpassed only by the Amazon, and is 
about equaled by the Obi. On an average there is carried to the sea each vear by the 
IMississippi 159 cubic miles of water, and in this it is exceeded b}- the Amazon and 
probabl}' the Congo and Yangtse Kiang. At certain seasons steamers can ascend to 
the Great Falls of the INIissouri, a distance of 3,950 miles from the gulf of IMexico. 
The navigable waters of the Mississippi and its tributaries are estimated at 15,000 
miles. 

3. Extent of the l)asii/. — The catchment basin of the Mississippi covers 56 degrees 
of longitude and 2 1 degrees of latitude, and discloses a great diversit}- of climate. The 
sources of its most soiitherly tributar}- from the west, the Red, are on the confines of the 
arid Staked Plains ; the western tributaries of the iVrkansas are fed bv the melting snows 
of the loftiest of the Rocky mountains ; the western streams of the IMissonri basin rise in 
the canyons of Montana and Wyoming, and its northern ones in blizzard-swept Assini- 
boia ; the headwaters of the Upper Mississippi lie among the pine woods of Minnesota ; 
the whole western slope of the Alleghanies is drained by the Ohio, whose most northerly 
tributary extends into New York, and its most southerh' into x'llabama. The western 
tributaries of the Mississippi, crossing the treeless levels of the western plains, and the 
eastern branches, from the wooded slopes of the Alleghanies, all seek the alluvial bed 
that stretches from Cairo to the Delta. From the mouth of the Ohio southward, the 
great river, now clothed in all its majesty, flows for nearh- 1,100 miles through a level 
and swampy land to the Delta. Within the limits of the basin are found variations of 



THE RIVER AND BASIN. 5 

temperature from almost arctic cold to semitropic heat ; and of rainfall from desert 
dryness to reeking moisture. 

4. Sitbdnu'siotis of ike Mississippi drainage basin. — The drainage basin of the 
Mississippi embraces six great natural divisions, the basins of the Ohio, Upper Missis- 
sippi, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers, together with a comparatively narrow strip 
of country which extends along the Mississippi river from the mouth of the Missouri to 
the Gulf, and is drained b}^ man}' small streams. The last sedlion may be conveniently 
designated as the Central Valley, and terminates in the Delta, lying south of the Red 
river. The boundaries and location of these subdivisions are shown by the shaded 
areas of Plate I, and their extent is given in the following table : 



Tabi,e I. 


— Grand divisions 


of 


the 


3fississippi basin. 




Designation. 


Area in 
square miles. 


Ratio to 
whole basin. 




201, 700 
165,900 

527, 150 

186, 300 

90,000 

69,000 




Upper Mississippi basin 












0.13 
0.43 
0.15 
0.07 












Arkansas basin 


Red basin 


Central Valley - - - - - 
















Total 


1,240,050 









The secondar}? basins are seen to be of very unequal extent, that of the Missouri 
being much the greatest, and the Central Valley the smallest ; the}' also differ wideU^ 
in their geographical and meteorological features, and it will be well to consider them 
a little more in detail. 

OHIO BASIN. 

5. Cliarafler of the basin. — The drainage basin of the Ohio is second in size of 
the six component divisions of the Mississippi basin, and is the most densel}- popu- 
lated. Its northern boundary is along the slightlj^ elevated plateau south of the Great 
Lakes ; along lake Erie it runs nowhere more than 50 miles from the lake shore, and 
farther west it approaches as closely to lake Michigan. The eastern and southern 
boundar}^ lies along the crests of the Alleghanies for 700 or Soo miles. Down the 
western slopes of these mountains, through a rugged and heavil}' timbered country, 
flow the streams that form the Tennessee, Cumberland, Kentuck}-, Big Sand}^, 
Great Kanawha, Little Kanawha, and Monongahela rivers. These streams have a steep 
slope, and are subjecft to great and sudden flucluations in volume. The Alleghany 
drains northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York ; its tributaries also 
lie in a mountainous region, and its discharge shows the same variability. The 
northern tributaries, of which the Wabash is the largest, flow through a ver\- different 
region ; the ground, somewhat broken near the Ohio, becomes a gently rolling land 
farther north, and is now generally cleared of timber. Largely from this difference 
in surface features, results the facfl: that most of the freshets in the Ohio come out of 
its southern and eastern branches. 

6. The Ohio river. — From its formation b}' the jun6lion of the Alleghany fvnd 
Monongahela to its mouth, the Ohio is 965 miles in length ; its remote sources are 



6 . FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI KIVER. 

2,370 miles from the gulf of Mexico. Throughout its length it is interrupted by 
rapids only at the falls of the Ohio, near Louisville. As will appear later, the Ohio 
makes a greater annual contribution to the waters discharged by the Mississippi than 
any other tributary. Yet, in low water, it becomes a succession of long pools and rip- 
ples, only navigable by boats of the lightest draft. The width of the river in low water 
is about 1,000 feet in its upper reaches, and 2,500 near the mouth. The corresponding 
cross secT:ions are, approximately, 5,000 and 50,000 square feet, which become in flood 
50,000 and 150,000 square feet, respedively. The descent in the Ohio from Pittsburg 
to Cairo is 430 feet, or an average of 0.44 foot per mile for the entire length of the river. 
7. Smaller divisions of the Ohio basin. — It will be useful hereafter, in investigating 
the downfall of water over a great basin, like that of the Ohio, to consider the smaller 
drainage areas of which it is composed. Each sedlion will be designated by a letter, 
and the various seftions are shown in different patterns in the shading on the map of 
the drainage basin, Plate I. The drainage areas of the smaller tributaries, entering the 
. same portion of the river, are combined together. The various seflions are clearly indi- 
cated on the map and require no detailed description. The areas of the various sub- 
divisions of the Ohio basin are given in the following table : 







Tabi,e II. — Subdivisions of the Ohio basin. 




Designation. 


Area in 
square miles. 


Ratio to 
whole basin. 


A 


19-050 
32, 300 
27,300 
25,000 

35, 150 
18,600 
44,300 


0. 10 


B 


0. 16 


c 


0. 14 


D 




E 


0.17 
0. 09 
0. 22 


F 


G 




Total 








201, 700 













UPPER MISSISSIPPI BASIN. 

8. The Upper Mississippi river. — The Mississippi river above the mouth of the 
Missouri is designated as the Upper Mississippi, and, although bearing the name of the 
main stream, is in reality a tributarj^. It rises in lake Itasca, a sheet of clear water 7 
miles long and from i to 3 miles wide. This lake lies in a swampy region, abounding 
in ponds and lakes, and covered with pine forest. The shallow stream, 10 or 12 feet in 
width, which leaves lake Itasca, meanders through woodland and grassy interA-als, 
several times expanding into lakes. It leaves the last of these, Winnibigoshish lake, 
as a stream 60 feet in width. From this point to the falls of St. Anthonj-, the river 
follows a winding course, and contains several rapids. The falls of St. Anthon}- are 
the head of navigation, at a distance of 690 miles above the mouth of the Missouri, and 
1,970 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi ; from the extreme source of the river to 
the gulf of Mexico, the distance is about 2,485 miles. Below the falls of St. Anthony, 
the Upper Mississippi is a broad and placid stream, expanding 65 miles below the falls 
into lake Pepin, which is 2 to 3 miles wide and 27 miles long. The river is filled with 
innumerable wooded islands, which make its entire width about i mile. At a short 
distance back from the river rise bluffs, and between the bluffs and river are fertile 



THE RIVER AND BASIN. 7 

flats, especiall}^ at the mouths of the tributaries. The latter are numerous throughout 
its course, but mostly small, the last and largest being the Illinois. The navigable 
river is interrupted by rapids at two points ; at Rock Island the stream descends 20 
feet in a distance of 12 miles, over a succession of rocky steps, and at the Des Moines 
rapids, above Keokuk, there is a fall of 22 feet in 11 miles. The descent in the Upper 
Mississippi, from St. Anthonj's falls to the motith of the Missouri, is 407 feet, or an 
average of 0.59 foot per mile. The cross se6lion of the river in flood, near its jundlion 
with the Missouri, is estimated at about 100,000 square feet. 

9. CharaRcr and extent of the basin. — The drainage basin of the Upper Missis- 
sippi is fourth in size of the secondary basins, being exceeded by those of the Ohio 
and Arkansas, as well as that of the Missouri. Its eastern boundary approaches very 
closely to lake ]\Iichigan, in the vicinity of Chicago ; farther north it recedes from the 
lake, passing through central Wisconsin and into upper Michigan. Turning Avest- 
ward it extends along the plateau some 50 miles south of lake Superior, and then 
crosses northern Minnesota. From the narrow divide, separating the headwaters of the 
Minnesota river and those of the Red River of the North, the boundary runs southeast 
to the mouth of the Missouri. This basin is relatively low and level, containing no 
mountains ; its central and southern portions are prairie land. It lies on an average 
some 5 degrees farther north than the basin of the Ohio, and during the winter 
months its streams are ice-bound. The drainage area is subdivided into four sedlions 
after the manner followed in treating of the Ohio basin. These are shown on the 
drainage map, Plate I, and their areas are as follows : 



Tabi^E III. — Subdivisions of the Upper Mississippi basin. 



Designation. 


Area in 
square miles. 


Ratio to 
whole basin. 


A 


55, 950 
37, 350 
43,450 
29, 150 


0.34 
0. 22 


B 


c 


0. 26 


D . 


0. iS 






Total 


165, 900 


1. 00 







MISSOURI BASIN. 



10. Extent and diversified charaEler. — The basin of the Missouri is the largest of 
the six divisions of the Mississippi basin, being two and one-half times as great as the 
next in size, that of the Ohio. As will appear hereafter, it is also the driest of the 
secondary basins and hence, notwithstanding its great extent, it is third in the volume 
of its annual drainage. From the sources of Marias river, in western Montana, to 
those of the Gasconade, in southern Missouri, it extends 1,350 miles in a southeast 
dire(5lion. Its northern edge reaches 75 miles be3'ond the northern bonndar}- of the 
United States. Where the boundary line reenters the United States in western Mon- 
tana, it turns southward, and runs at an elevation of from 6,000 to 14,000 feet in a 
southeasterly direAion to central Colorado. The soiithern boundar}' extends from 
Colorado, across Kansas and ]\Iissouri, in an easterl}- diredlion, descending rapidl}^ at 
first and then more slowly, until, at the mouth of the Missouri, the low-water surface is 



8 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

only 400 feet above sea level. The variety of topographical features within this basin 
is unsurpassed. The mountainous western seftion, filled with spurs from the central 
ridge of the Rocky mountains, is of the wildest chara6ler. In its higher portions the 
snow remains long after it has vanished at lower levels, and on the loftier peaks is 
never absent. The rapid streams, which descend the mountain valleys, have cut deep 
canyons, with almost vertical sides of solid rock. From the base of the mountains, bar- 
ren and treeless plains stretch eastward, with alkaline soil and water. These gradually 
change to more fertile prairies, sloping imperceptibly southeastward to the central val- 
ley of the Mississippi basin, and the rivers change in charac?ter to shallow, muddy 
streams with shifting beds of sand. 

II. The Missouri river. — The Missouri river is formed by the jun6lion of Jeffer- 
son, Madison, and Gallatin forks. These streams unite in a plain, sun-ounded by lofty 
peaks, and flow for some 60 or 70 miles through wild valleys and deep canyons, finally 
issuing into the barren foothills. About 35 miles above Benton, Mont., are located the 
Great Falls, where is the head of navigation. From this point the river is navigable 
in summer to its mouth, a distance of about 2,670 miles. From its extreme sources, 
the length of the river is about 2,910 miles, and the distance to the gulf of Mexico 
4,190 miles. The first considerable tributary is the Yellowstone, which rises in many 
branches among the mountains to the south of the sources of the Missouri. At their 
junction the Yellowstone is of about the same size as the main stream. From this 
point the river assumes the charadler which it maintains to its mouth. The water is 
thick and mudd}^, from the washing away of the river banks, and this alluvial matter is 
borne onward to the gulf of Mexico, imparting the same turgid appearance to the Lower 
Mississippi. The current separates into many channels, forming numerous sandy 
islands, which are often covered with cottonwood trees. Below the confluence of the 
Yellowstone, the width of the river is nearly uniform to its mouth, ranging from one- 
third to half a mile when bank-full. Many tributaries add their water to the Missouri 
below the mouth of the Yellowstone, the more important being the Platte and the Kan- 
sas. All are much alike in charadler, and are broad and shallow streams, with sandy 
beds, and contain many sandbars. From the foot of the Great Falls to its mouth, 
the Missouri descends about 2,585 feet, or an average of 0.97 foot per mile. The cross 
sedlion at the mouth is approximately 75,000 square feet in high water. 

It is convenient to divide the Missouri basin into eight sedlions, as shown on the 
drainage map, Plate I, and their areas are given in the following table : 



Tabi,e IV. — Subdivisions of the Missouri basin. 




Designation. 


Area in 
square miles. 


Ratio to 
•whole basin. 


A 


98, 750 
69,700 
73,000 
40, 550 
41,800 
90,000 
59, 250 
54,100 


0. 19 

0. 13 
0. 14 
08 


B 


C 


D 


E 


oS 


F 


0.17 

Oil 


G 


H 








Total 


527, 150 









THE RIVER AND BASIN. 9 

The differences between the various sections of this basin in respedlto climate, as well 
as in phj'sical charadleristics, are far greater than exist in the basins previously con- 
sidered. The northwestern portion is one of the driest regions of the country, while, 
at the southeast extremity of the basin, there is a fair annual precipitation. The 
former region is also subjeft to extreme ranges of temperature. 

ARKANSAS BASIN. 

12. CharaFtcr of tJic basin. — The basin of the Arkansas river bears a close resem- 
blance to that of the Missouri in its variety of topography and its dryness. It holds 
the third place in point of size, but its annual drainage is the least with the exception of 
that of the Red river basin. In shape the basin is long and narrow, covering 14 degrees 
in longitude, with a width of 2 to 4 degrees of latitude. Its western boundary runs along 
the main ridge of the Rocky mountains in Colorado and New Mexico, and the western 
portion of the basin possesses the same wild and rugged character as the corresponding 
portion of the Missouri basin. Eastward from the mountains stretch sterile, gently 
rolling plains, with a slight and decreasing slope to the central Mississippi valley, in- 
terrupted by a range of low mountains, which form an extension southwestward of the 
Ozark mountains of southern Missouri. Bast of these mountains the country is low, 
rolling, and heavily timbered, finally descending to the level, alluvial plain through 
which the Mississippi flows. Here is a rich, black, alluvial soil, yielding generous 
crops of corn and cotton wherever cultivated. 

13. The upper Arkansas rwer. — The Arkansas river has its source in central 
Colorado, near Leadville. Its course is easterly to the Great Bend in Kansas, where 
it sweeps northeast for a hundred miles, and then turns to the southeast to its conflu- 
ence with the Mississippi in southeastern Arkansas. Its length is about 1,610 miles, 
and the distance from its source to the gulf of Mexico 2,290 miles. In the fii^st 120 
miles of its course the river is a clear, mountain stream, with rockj- bed, descending nearly 
5,000 feet in this distance. It escapes from the mountains through a magnificent gorge 
near Canyon City. In the vicinity of Pueblo, Colo., the width of the Arkansas is from 
150 to 175 feet, and its depth from 3 to 5 feet. From Pueblo to the Great Bend its 
width gradually increases, from the addition of many small tributaries, to 500 or 600 
feet. Throtigh this sandy, arid region the stream is shallow, and its bed largelj- a 
quicksand ; the banks are low, and beyond them spreads a grassy bottom, from a half 
mile to 2 miles in width between the bluffs. The latter rise from 50 to 300 feet, to the 
general surface of the rolling prairie. Passing around the Great Bend, the river turns 
southeast, and enters Oklahoma near its eastern border. In this portion, the river ex- 
pands in width, in some reaches, to nearly a mile. Here it receives its first important 
tributary, the Cimarron. The discharge of the Arkansas river in low water is ver}^ 
small above the mouth of the Cimarron, and occasionally ceases entirely, there being 
few pools, even, to be seen. 

14. . The loivcr Arkansas river. — Below the mouth of the Cimarron the river 
changes in appearance ; its water loses the pale, drab color it has previously possessed, 
and becomes an opaque red. The banks and bars are, from deposit, of the same hue. 
The stream becomes more serpentine in its course, and is obstrudled b}' manj' sandbars 
and islands. Eighty miles below the Cimarron, the Canadian river is reached, the 
2 MISS 



lO 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



most important tributary except the Wliite river. This stream rises in the northeastern 
portion of New Mexico and is about i,ooo miles in length. Below the junftion of the 
Canadian, the Arkansas enters the mountainous region, referred to above as extending 
across the basin from southern Missouri. Emerging from this broken country, the lower 
Arkansas is bordered bj- wide, alluvial bottoms, subje6l to overflow unless proteAed by 
levees. At Little Rock, Ark., there is to be seen a high bluff of slate, known as Big- 
Rock, and a little below, on the opposite bank, a similar but smaller bluff known as Little 
Rock. These are the last outcroppings of the underlying rocks, and a short distance 
below them the vallej' merges into the wide, alluvial plain, which extends to the Missis- 
sippi. The White river is classed as a tributary of the Arkansas, although in man}- 
respe6ls it is an independent stream, entering the Mississippi S miles above the mouth 
of the Arkansas. The latter is at Napoleon, Ark., but the Arkansas is conneAed, 
through a large bayou, with the White river, 6 miles above the mouth of the latter. 
Although draining a much smaller area than the Canadian, the White river supplies 
a far greater annual discharge, owing to a rainfall more than twice as great over its 
watershed. The Arkansas is navigable in high water to Fort Gibson, about 640 miles 
from the mouth and 1,320 miles from the gulf of Mexico. Its width in this i-each is 
about 1,500 feet. The descent in the river, from Fort Gibson to the mouth, is approxi- 
mately 400 feet, or an average of 0.62 foot per mile. The cross sedlion in high water 
is about 70,000 square feet, at the mouth. 

The Arkansas basin is conveniently divided into four distri(5ls, as shown on the 
drainage map, Pla.te I, and the areas of these subdivisions are given in the following- 
table : 

Table V. — S/iddi'i'isIoas of th: Arkansas basin. 



Designation. 

■ 


Area in 
square miles. 


Ratio to 
whole basin. 


A 


57,000 
60, 050 
26, 500 
42, 750 


0.31 
0.32 
0. 14 


B 


C 


D 






Total 


186, 300 


I 00 







RED BASIN. 

15. CharaTlcr of the basin. — The basin of the Red river is less than half the size 
of that of the Arkansas, but is similar to the latter in topograph}^, except that its west- 
ern limits lie to the south and east of the Rocky mountains. This portion of the 
basin forms a part of the desert plateau of cl Llano Estacado. Eastward to the Cross 
Timbers the country is a barren gypsum desert for the most part. The Cross Timbers 
are an open forest of oak and blackjack, from 5 to 30 miles in width, and extending in 
a southwest diredtion from the Arkansas to the Brazos river. The Red river crosses 
this forest between longitude 97° and 98°. East of the Cross Timbers the transition 
is sudden to a fertile and well watered country, with abundant vegetation. The lower 
portion of the basin is low, and contains many swamps and bayotis. The only moun- 
tainous regions, embraced in this drainage area, are the Wichita mountains in Okla- 
homa, west of the Cross Timbers, and the rugged distridl about the upper Ouachita. 



THE RIVER AND BASIN. II 

1 6. The Red rrc'cr. — The Red river rises in a ravine, some 60 miles in length, at 
the eastern rim of el Llaiio Estacado. Loft\' sandstone walls rise precipitously to 
a height of 500 to Soo feet, springing almost from the river bank. The bluffs, into 
which this ravine is cut, rise abruptl}- from the lower prairie, and terminate at the sum- 
mit in a level plateau, stretching south and west in desert sterility. The water of the 
river for 400 miles is bitter and nauseating from the salts held in solution. Soon after 
its debouche from el Llano Estacado^ the river spreads out into a shallow stream, 2,000 
to 2,500 feet in width, flowing rapidly over a sandy bed. Its iirst noteworthy tributary 
is the North Fork, which enters on the western borders of the Wichita mountains. 
East of the Cross Timbers the Washita unites with the Red river, and from this point 
the stream changes in chara6ler. It now flows through rich, alhu-ial bottoms, with a 
sluggish current, in a muddy bed. Its width contradls greatly, and ranges from 600 to 
800 feet as far as the mouth of the Black, or 460 miles from its owm mouth ; at the 
latter point its width has again increased to i,Soo feet. The only tributary of great 
importance is the Black, which drains the Tensas bottom through bayou Tensas ; this 
river is formed by the union of the Ouachita, Little river, and ba3-ou Tensas, and is a 
deep, navigable stream, 54 miles long. 

17. Outlet bayous of the lower Red. — Prom the source to the mouth of the Red river 
the distance is approximately 1,530 miles, and to the gulf of Mexico 1,840 miles. Just 
above Alexandria, La., at a distance of 139 miles from the mouth, the first bayou, the 
Rapides, is met. From this point to its mouth the Red river forms the northern bound- 
ary of the Delta. Bayou Atchafalaya leaves the river 7 miles above the mouth, and 
carries the main discharge of the Red to the Gulf, independently of the channel of the 
Mississippi. Numerous bayous connedl the Atchafalaya with the Red at various 
points up to the Rapides. In times of high flood, water from the Mississippi enters 
the mouth of the Red, and is discharged through the Atchafalaya, thus reducing in 
some degree the height of the flood at points below on the Mississippi. The Red river 
is not therefore a true tributary of the Mississippi, but partakes largely of the char- 
adler of an independent stream. The cross sedlion of the lower river, in high water, is 
about 40,000 square feet. The river is navigable to Shreveport, La., except in extreme 
low water, and to Fulton, Ark., at a distance of 565 miles from its mouth, in high 
water. The descent in the river from the latter point is about 240 feet, or an average 
of 0.42 foot per mile. 

•The basin of the Red river may be divided into an upper and a lower sedlion, as 
shown on the drainage map, Plate I, and the areas of these subdivisions are as follows : 







Table VI. — Subdivisions of the Red basin. 




Designation. 


Area in 
square miles. 

45, 800 
44,200 


Ratio to 
whole basin. 


A... 






0.51 
0.49 


B - 




Total 






90,000 


I. 00 











The upper portion of the basin is a region of very light precipitation, indeed, is a 
veritable desert. Its lower sedlion, on the other hand, receives nearly the maximum 



12 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RI^'ER. 

rainfall of the ]\Iississippi basin. In the latter portion is inclnded the great swamp 
known as the Tensas bottom, which is largel}' belo-\\' the high-^vater level of the Alis- 
sissippi, and is liable to overflo-\v. 

CENTRAL VALLEY. 

i8. Extent of the Central ]\iUcv. — Under the designation of the Central Yalle^^ 
have been included the manj' small basins which are drained b\' direft tributaries of 
the ]\Iississippi, south of the INIissouri. Together they form a strip of country, nowhere 
exceeding 200 miles in width, and terminating in the Delta. The onh' important 
streams among these tributaries are the St. Francis and the Yazoo, which drain the 
two great bottoms of the same names. The total area included in the Central \'alley, 
is onl}' three-fourths that of the Red river basin, making it the smallest of the six 
grand divisions of the Mississippi basin. The annual precipitation, however, over this 
region, is heav}', and the water courses short, and, as a result, its contribution to the 
IMississippi discharge is exceeded onl}^ b}^ that of the Ohio. 

19. Basins of the Kaskaskia and Meraniec rivers. — The Central A'alle}' is naturall}' 
divided into six distrifts. The first, descending the Mississippi, is the country- ex- 
tending from the mouth of the Missouri river to Cape Girardeau, Mo., on the right bank, 
and to the mouth of the Ohio on the left bank. This is designated as A upon the 
drainage map. The chief stream on the right bank is the Meramec, which drains the 
northeast slope of the Ozark mountains, and enters the Mississippi about 25 miles below^ 
St. Louis. Smaller creeks drain the land immediately adjacent to the Mississippi, south 
of the Meramec. This whole region is hilly, and contains no land liable to inundation. 
On the left bank the most important stream is the Kaskaskia, which joins the Mississippi 
50 miles below the Meramec. Between the mouth of the Missouri and that of the Kas- 
kaskia is the American bottom, which is flooded in verv high water. A smaller strip 
of land, bordering the Mississippi above Cairo, is also subje6l to inundation. The 
Kaskaskia itself flows through an alluvial bottom, which is overflowed in freshets. 

20. Basin of the St. ^Francis river. — From Cape Girardeau, ]\Io., to Helena, Ark., 
the right bank of the Mississippi bounds what is known as the St. Francis basin, 
although some small areas are drained by other streams than the St. Francis. This 
forms the second natural division of the Central Vallej', and is designated as B upon 
the drainage map. Two-thirds of this entire area of 10,500 square miles is included in 
the St. Francis bottom ; the remainder is a broken, hilly countr}-, forming a portion of 
the southern slope of the Ozark mountains, and descending rapidly- to the bottom lands. 
Just below Cape Girardeau there is a strip of low land for 4 miles along the right bank 
of the Alississippi, over which flood water flows into the St. Francis bottom ; this is the 
northern limit of the swamp region. The bluff reappears at Gravs Point and continues 
for 7 miles to Commerce, IMo. From the latter point to the lower end of the St. Francis 
basin at Helena, Ark., the right bank of the ^Mississippi is low, except at New Madrid, 
Mo. At this point the ]\Iississippi cuts through a low ridge, which is the continuation 
soiithw^ard of the Commerce bluff's. The high land at Cape Girardeau extends in a 
long range of low hills, known in dift'erent parts as Hickor}^ ridge, Bloomfield ridge, 
and Crowleys ridge, at first southwest and then south to Helena. These hills, from 
200 to 400 feet in height, form the western boundarv of the St. Francis bottom. Near 
their northern end they are pierced by the White and Castor rivers, and a little farther 



THE RIVER AND BASIN. 1 3 

south b}^ the St. Francis. The latter stream, after piercing the hills at Chalk bluff, 
flows southward, close to their base, to its mouth, g miles above Helena. 

21. SL Francis bottom. — The swamp known as the St. Francis bottom, is a great 
plain, which extends from the bounding, western ridge to the Mississippi. It is nearly 
level, but slopes toward the west, or aivay from the Mississippi river^ with an average 
gradient of about 0.5 foot to the mile ; from north to south there is a slightlj- greater 
descent of about 0.7 foot per mile. Some small ridges cross the swamp, and are above 
overflow, but, for the most part, the entire area would be submerged in floods, unless 
protedled by levees. The extent of country liable to inundation is about 6,090 square 
miles. From Point Pleasant, Mo., southward for 125 miles, a levee now borders the 
river ; the remaining front of the St. Francis bottom is not leveed. The building of 
this levee has had an important effedl upon the regimen of the St. Francis river. Before 
its construdlion, manj/ ba3^ous gave entrance for the Mississippi water to the swamp, 
long before the crest of the flood was reached. The swamp, thus filled, drained into the 
St. Francis, and, when the flood crest in the Mississippi reached Helena, the St. Francis 
would also be in high flood, and would add large quantities of water to the Mississippi 
flood at its top. Since the building of the levee this ac?tion is mtich reduced, and it 
sometimes happens, in rapid rises of the Mississippi, that the current of the St. Francis 
is reversed, and the river backed up as far as Wittsburg, a distance of 80 miles. At 
the same time, the water which is retained in the Mississippi, causes the crest of the 
main flood to be higher at Memphis and Helena. It seems, from the records of the 
flood of this year, that the latter effedl is the greater, and that the total effeft of the 
levee has been to cause decidedly higher water at the head of the Yazoo bottom. 

22. Basins of the Obion and Hatchee rivers. — On the left bank, from Cairo, 111., to 
a few miles below Memphis, Tenn., the bluffs are nowhere far removed from the Mis- 
sissippi. The}^ touch the river at Columbus and Hickman, Ky., distant 21 and 36 
miles, respectivel}', from Cairo. Again, between New Madrid and Point Pleasant, ]\Io., 
the bank is high, the river here intersedling the ridge before noted as extending south 
from the Commei'ce bluffs. Below this point the four Chickasaw bluffs, on the fourth 
of which Memphis is built, approach the river. The region back of the bluffs is mostly 
hilly, and is drained by many small rivers and creeks. The more important of these 
streams are the Obion, the Forked Deer, the Hatchee, and the Wolf. This entire 
drainage area, designated as C iipon the drainage map, between the Ohio river and the 
Yazoo bottom, comprises about 10,250 square miles, of which little more than 600 are 
liable to inundation. 

23. Basin of the Yazoo river. — From the Tennessee-Mississippi boundary line, iS 
miles by river below Memphis, to Vicksburg, the Mississippi river borders the Yazoo 
bottom. The latter is a heavily timbered, alluvial plain of oval shape, about iSo miles 
in length, and 70 miles in width at its widest part. Like the St. Francis bottom, it 
slopes (7 zri'ri'y/'C';;/ ///(? J/m/kw)^/'/ r/r^r, and descends toward the south. The gradient 
is less than in the former bottom, being on an average 0.4 foot per mile from west to 
east and 0.6 from north to south. On its eastern side the swamp is bounded by a line of 
hills, close to Avhich flows the main stream, which drains this region. In its upper por- 
tion this river is known as the Coldwater, and, below the confluence of the Tallahatchie, 
as the Yazoo. The total length of the stream is some 500 miles, and it is navigable 
throughout the year to Greenwood, Miss., about 240 miles from the mouth. Including 



14 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

the upland, the total area drained b}- the Yazoo is about 13,850 square miles ; the bot- 
tom embraces 6,650 square miles subject to overflow. This basin is designated as D on 
the drainage map. 

24. The Yazoo bottom. — The Yazoo bottom is traversed by a ridge from 2 to 6 miles 
in width, and above overflow. This forms an extension southward of Crowleys ridge, 
and stretches almost entirely across the bottom from Delta, Miss., on the Mississippi 
river, south of Helena. With this exception, the entire bottom is liable to submergence 
in times of flood, save as it is prote6led by levees. At the present time the entire front has 
been leveed, from the northern boundary of Mississippi to a point 13 miles above Vicks- 
burg, a distance by river of 336 miles. The construAion of the levee has produced a 
change in the regimen of the Yazoo river similar to that in the case of the St. Francis. 
In former times the Yazoo bottom began to fill when the Mississippi was as much as 10 
feet below the maximum flood height, and the Yazoo river discharged a large volume of 
water, even at the top of the highest floods. iVt present, while the levees remain 
unbroken, the Yazoo is backed up b}^ a Mississippi flood — sometimes, in rapid rises, for 
as much as 70 miles from its mouth — unless there be at the same time a local freshet 
in its tributaries, when it may maintain a moderate discharge. In rare instances there 
is even a reversed current of water from the Mississippi. 

25. 77^1? Tensas bottom. — From the southern border of the St. Francis basin to the 
Red river, the countrv bordering the right bank of the Mississippi is included in the 
Arkansas and Red basins, which we have already considered. This land is all low, and 
embraces the Tensas bottom, about 4,955 square miles in extent, and similar in characfler 
to the St. Francis and Yazoo bottoms. This great swamp is chiefly drained by bayou 
Tensas, which unites with the Ouachita and Little rivers to form the Black, the most 
important tributary of the Red. 

26. Basins of the Big Black and Homochitto rii'ers. — Between Vicksburg, ]\Iiss., 
and Baton Rouge, La., several small tributaries enter the Mississippi on the left bank, 
the larger of which are the Big Black and the Homochitto. Except a narrow strip of 
low land immediately bordering the river, this drainage area is rolling and hilly ; bluffs, 
from 100 to 300 feet in height, are met at a short distance from the river. Of its total 
area of about 7,250 square miles, not more than 415 are liable to overflow. At sev- 
eral points the bluffs extend clear to the river, notably at Natchez, Fort Adams, and 
Port Hudson. This drainage area is shown on the map as section E of the Central 
Valley. 

27. Extent of the Delta. — Considering the location of the general coast line of the 
gulf of Mexico, and the geological formation of the soil, as shown from various borings, 
the conclusion is reached that the true delta of the ]\Iississippi begins not far from the 
head of the former ba3-ou Plaquemine, now closed. This would make the advance of 
the river mouth into the gulf some 220 miles. It is customarv, however, to designate 
by the term Delta all that alluvial region which stretches southward from the Red river. 
The northern and eastern boundarj- of this region begins at bavou Rapides on the Red 
river, and follows the latter to its mouth ; from the latter point to baj-ou ]Manchac, 14 
miles below Baton Rouge, the Mississippi forms the boundary ; descending baj^ou Man- 
chac to the Amite river, and the latter to its mouth, the boundary- then follows the 
southern shore of lakes Maurepas, Pontchartrain, and Borgne, and their connecling 
passes, to the gulf of Mexico. From lake Borgne on the east to \^ermillion bay on the 



THE RIVER AND BASIN. 



15 



west, the coast line bounds the Delta, and thence the bonndar_y extends northwestward 
to its initial point on Red river. The area embraced in the Delta is designated on the 
drainage map as section F of the Central Valley. 

28. CharaRcr of the Delta. — With the exception of a small area of higher ground, 
known as Avoyelles Prairie, near the Red river, and the prairies along bayou Teche, this 
entire sedlion, designated as F on the drainage map, 12,300 square miles in extent, is 
a low, swamp3^ region, intersedled b}- countless bayous. Fully 4,000 square miles are a 
sea marsh, and above 10,000 are liable to overflow. The main drain of the Delta is 
bayou Atchafalaya, which leaves the Red river 7 miles from its mouth, and, flowing 
southward through Grand lake, finall}' reaches the sea at Atchafalaj^a ba}-. Formerly, 
bayou Plaquemine left the Mississippi 20 miles below Baton Rotige, and conne6led with 
the Atchafala3^a through Grand river, but this bayou has now been closed by the Mis- 
sissippi levee. Thirty-three miles farther down and 80 miles above New Orleans, th:; 
second great drain of the Delta, known as baj'ou La Fovirche, leaves the Mississippi at 
Donaldsonville, La. This flows south and southeast to the sea, its mouth being mid- 
way between those of the Atchafala\'a and the Mississippi. At the western edge of the 
Delta, ba3''OU Teche at the south and bayou Bceuf farther north, together with bayou 
Rapides, form a second drainage line from the Red to the Atchafalaya near its mouth, 
and the intervening region is covered by a network of intercommiinicating bayous, con- 
nedled with the Red river at several points between baj'ous Rapides and Atchafalaya. 
29. General jeatiires of the Central Valley. — The various divisions of the Central 
Valley have now been considered briefly. The entire valley has an abundant annual 
precipitation, which grows heavier as we proceed toward the south. On its southern 
extremity' the maximum precipitation of the Mississippi drainage basin falls, amount- 
ing to 60 inches in the 3^ear. Of the entire area of 6g,ooo square miles included in 
the Central Valley, 30,000 square miles are alluvial land, covered with river sediment, 
and subjedl to overflow, except as protedled by artificial means. The areas of the vari- 
ous subdivisions are shown in the following table : 



Tabi,e VII. — Subdivisions of the Cenlral I 'alley. 



Designation. 


Area in 
square miles. 


Ratio to 
whole basin. 


A 


14,850 
10, 500 
10, 250 
13, S50 
7,250 
12,300 


0. 22 


B 


0.15 
0.15 
0. 20 


C 


D 


E 


0. 10 


F 


0. iS 






Total . * 


69,000 


I 00 







LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



30. The alluvial plain. — From the mouth of the Missouri to the gulf of ]\Iexico, 
a distance by water of 1,280 miles, the river is designated as the Lower Mississippi, to 
distinguish this portion from the Upper Mississippi, which, as before remarked, is 
rather a tributar}' than a part of the main stream. For most of this distance the river's 
course is through an alluvial plain, co\-ered to no great depth with sedimentar}- deposits 



i6 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



of the stream. The extent of this alluvial region is shown by the lighter tint on 
Plate II, as it has been laid down on the large map, published in 18S7 by the Mis- 
sissippi River Commission. The alluvion rarelj' exceeds 40 feet in depth, and is ever}-- 
where underlaid bj^ a hard, tenacious, blue clay, below which is found water-bearing 
gravel and sand. In many instances there are alternate strata of clay and gravel. 
The bed of the river from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf of Mexico is in this blue 
clay. The immediate banks of the river are higher than the land farther back, which 
is, for the most part, below the high-water level. The slope is greatest near the river, 
being from 3 to 12 feet in the first mile, and averaging perhaps 7 ; it then diminishes 
until the almost level swamp is reached, at a distance of 2 or 3 niileS from the river. 

3 1 . CJiaraFler of the Lozver Mississippi river. — The head of the alluvial plain is at 
Cape Girardeau, Mo., where the highlands of the upper river cease for a distance of 4 
miles, to reappear for a short distance as the Commerce bluffs. Below the latter, the 
Mississippi touches high land on its right bank at only two points. New Madrid, Mo., 
and Helena., Ark. On the left bank, high land approaches the river at Columbus and 
Hickman, K3^, at the four Chickasaw bkiffs, and at several points from Vicksbiirg, 
Miss., to Baton Rouge, La. The dire6l distance from the head of the alluvial plain to 
the mouth of the Mississippi is less than 600 miles, but, by the tortuous river channel, 
it exceeds 1,100 miles. The river is turbid with a yellowish mud, the sediment carried 
being stated by Humphreys and Abbot as ttVo part of the river water by weight. The 
total transport of earthy matter to the sea is, approximately, 400,000,000 tons per 
year. The Lower Mississippi is a turbulent stream, eating away its banks in the 
bends, building" and destro3'ing islands and bai"s in its channel. The caving of its 
banks is occasioned by the peculiar formation of the soil, already noted ; the underlying 
sand and gravel is washed out, and then the overl3dng stratum of clay falls of its own 
weight, and is dissolved \yy the swift current. 

32. Dimensions of the river. — In its course through the alluvial plain, the Missis- 
sippi decreases in width and increases in depth, while its cross sedlion changes but 
slightly. The following table, compiled by Humphreys and Abbot, from accurate 
measurements, is taken from their report : 



Tabi,e VWl.—Mean di 


uiensions of 


the Lower Blississippi. 








High water. 


Low water. 

1 


Localit}-. 


Cross sec- 
tion. 


Width. 


Maximum 
depth. 


Cross sec- 
tion. 


Width. 


Maximum 
depth. 


Cairo to Arkansas river 


Square feet. 
191,000 
199,000 
200, 000 
199, 000 


Feet. 

4,470 

4,oSo 

3,000 

2,470 


Feet. 

87 
96 

113 
129 


Square feet. 

45,000 

54,000 

100,000 

163, 000 


Feet. 

3,400 

3,060 

2,750 

2,250 


Feet. 

49 
56 


Arkansas river to Red river ■ 




78 


Ba3^ou I^a Foiurche to head of passes 


114 







33. Slope of the water surface. — River gauges have been established at various 
points along the Lower Mississippi, and the height of the water surface thereon has 
been observed for periods of from twenty-five to thirty-five years. The elevation of the 
gauges above sea level has been determined through precise surveys by the United 
States engineers. Prom these gauge readings there has been computed the average 



THE RIVER AND BASIN. 



stage of water at certain points, and this, referred to sea level, enables us to determine 
the average slope of the river. The resultant data are given in the following table : 

TabIvE IX. — Meaii slope of the Lower I\[ississippi. 



Stations. 



Mean stage 
above sea level. 



Distance 
between stations. 



Average slope 

per mile, 

between stations. 



St. Louis, Mo. . . 

Cairo, 111 

Memphis, Tenn. 
Vicksburg, Miss. 
Carroll ton, La. . . 



Feet. 

391- 6 -| 

290.8^ 

19S.1.J 

67.9^ 
6.1J 



Miles. 



Foot. 



191 
_ 230 

369 
-358 



0.528 
0.403 
0-353 
o. 173 



It will be observed that the slope steadily diminishes as the gulf is approached. 
During the remaining 116 miles from Carroll ton to the gulf the slope is very slight. 

34. Mouths of the Mississippi. — The waters of the Mississippi are discharged 
through several mouths, and across a true delta. From the last outlet bayou, La 
Fourche, to Fort St. Phillip, the channel is nearly uniform, averaging in high water 
199,000 square feet in cross sedlion, 2,470 feet in width, and*i29 feet in maximum depth ; 
these dimensions become in low water 163,000 square feet, 2,250 feet, and 114 feet, 
respeflively. Twenty miles below Fort St. Phillip, at the head of the passes, the river 
spreads, out to a width of 7,000 or 8,000 feet, its maximum depth decreases to about 40 
feet, and its cross seAion becomes 250,000 square feet. It then divides into three 
branches, two of Avhich flow direct to the sea, and are known as the Southwest and the 
South pass, respectively. The third subdivides, 5 miles from its head, and finally 
reaches the sea by five mouths, known as Balize bayou. Southeast pass. Northeast pass, 
pass a rOutre, and North pass. There are also three small outlets above the main 
passes. Midway between Fort St. Phillip and the head of the passes are found two 
small outlets, the Jump on the west and Baptiste Collet ba3^ou on the east side ; and 
about 2 miles above the head of the passes another small ovitlet, known as Cubits Gap, 
occurs on the east side. 

35.' Mississippi levees. — From Fort St. Phillip, 20 miles above the head of the passes, 
to Baton Rouge, the river is leveed on both sides. On the east bank there is no levee 
above Baton Rouge until that in front of the Yazoo bottom is reached. On the west 
bank the levee continues to the Red river, and is resumed 30 miles above the latter. 
Thence it extends to a point 25 miles below the Arkansas river, and is again resumed a 
few miles above, continuing to Helena, Ark. One hundred and six miles farther up- 
stream the St. Francis levee begins, and extends to Point Pleasant, Mo. 

3 MISS 



SECTION 11. 

NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 

Relation of downfall and drainage. — Method of determining downfall. — Errors in li^-etal measurements. — Magnitude of 
rain-guage errors. — Cause of error is the wind. — Proper method of determining normal precipitation. — The isoh3-e- 
tal charts. — Geographical distribution of precipitation. — Seasonal changes in distribution. — Method of comput- 
ing precipitation on a watershed. — Average precipitation on the various watersheds. — Downfall in the six chief 
divisions of the Mississippi basin. — Determination of discharge. — Available data. — Computation of normal dis- 
charge. — Remarks upon the computed discharges. — Differences in normal drainage. — Measurement of the stage of 
a river. — Stations selected for study. — Method of computing normals. — Normal regimen of the rivers. — Mean and 
extreme river stages. — Normal monthly stages. 

THE water discliarged from a river basin is derived entirely from the precipi- 
tation falling over it. Of the total downfall of water, a part flows off upon the 
surface of the ground to the small rivulets and drains, ultimately reaching the 
main river of the basin. The remainder sinks into the ground, and is partly absorbed 
by vegetation, partly evaporated, and in part sinks until it reaches the impervious 
rock, which lies at no great depth below the surface. Along this rock it slowly flows 
down the slope, and gives rise to the springs which supply the steady flow of the stream. 
Floods and freshets have their origin in the surface discharge, while the low-water flow 
of streams is chiefly due to the underground waters. The relation of downfall to drain- 
age will vary with the chara61er of the soil and vegetation, and the steepness of the 
surface slope. In a region like the dry western plains of the Missouri vallej', which is 
level and sandy, and over which the precipitation is deficient, the proportion of the 
downfall that reaches the river will be small. On the other hand, in a region like the 
Yazoo bottom, which remains almost saturated with moisture at all times and is densely 
shaded by vegetation, and where, moreover, the rainfall is excessive, a large portion of 
the downfall will be discharged. 

36. Method of dcterinining downfall. — In investigating a river sj^stem, it is of prime 
importance to ascertain the downfall of water over the area drained. For this purpose 
it is necessary to know the area of the watershed and the depth of precipitation which 
falls upon it. Probably no other meteorological element has been made the subje6l of 
more frequent observation than the precipitation, and yet it is doubtful if the true nor- 
mal rainfall is known at any point of the earth's surface within 3 per cent, or perhaps an 
inch in an annual amount such as falls in the eastern part of the United States. We 
possess a number of records of precipitation covering a period in excess of half a century, 
and many exceeding thirty years in length. As records of the catch of water by a 
certain gauge in a certain location, some of these records are admirable. There are, 

18 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 



19 



however, certain inherent errors in the ordinary methods of measuring precipitation, 
which have received too little consideration at the hands of meteorologists. 



MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION. 

37. Errors in hyetal measurements. — So important is the matter of errors in the 
measurement of precipitation that it merits a moment's consideration. The pradlically 
universal method of measurement is by exposing in an open place a cylindrical 
vessel of moderate size, usually 4 to 8 inches in diameter and relatively deep. The 
measured precipitation has been shown to be liable to error from two sources, one 
arising from the gauge itself and the other from its environment. The error from both 
sources is due to irregular eddies and currents of wind, caused in the one case by the 
obstru(?hion to the wind of the gauge itself, and in the other by the more or less close 
proximity of trees, buildings, or other irregularities of the surface. The effeft is the 
greater, the greater the velocity of the wind, and hence increases with altitude above 
the surface, because the wind velocity is greater at higher elevations. 

38. Magnitude of rain-gauge errors. — This matter has been treated at length by 
Professor Abbe, in Bulletin No. 7, Forestry Division, Department of Agriculture, in 
which anyone interested in the subject may find a more detailed discussion of the 
errors in the measurement of precipitation. The following table, first given by Wild, 
is taken from this bulletin and shows the great inaccuracy of measurement with the 
usual form of gauge : 

Table X. — Deficits of rain-gauge catch. 



Altitude of 


Low wind velocities — 4 to 11 
miles per hour. 


High wind velocities — 12 to 20 
miles per hour. 


gauge. 


Rainfall. 


Snowfall. 


Rainfall. 


Snowfall. 


Feet. 

3 

7 

80 


Per cent. 

5 
8 

19 


Per cent. 
II 
14 
74 


Per cent. 
6 
16 
44 


Per cent. 

14 
18 
84 



The effedl of the error arising from the gauge itself is always to give too small a 
catch, the deficit with the usual gauge, in a lengthy period, seemingly never being less 
than 5 per cent. The table also shows that the deficit is much greater in the case of 
snow than in that of rain, and it has further been shown by Bomstein that the deficit 
is greater in a fine than in a heavy rain. The effecft of environment may be either to 
increase or diminish the catch, and hence the combined effedl of the two sources of 
error may be to make the catch either exceed or fall short of the true precipitation, 
and by as much as 25 per cent in extreme cases. The effedl of environment has been 
investigated by Hellmann at eleven stations in and about Berlin, with gauges exposed 
at each after a uniform plan. All the gauges were at a fixed height of 42 inches above 
the ground, and were situated in open places ; in other words, the gauges were vastly 
more uniform in exposure than those whose records we are to discuss, and their mutual 
variations must be attributed to environment. The resvilts of observations for two full 
years showed departures in the annual catch of individual gauges, from the mea.n catch 



20 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



of the whole eleven, of as much as 14 per cent. The probable error in the annual 
rainfall, as determined bj^ any single gauge, is found to be 6 per cent. 

39. Cause of error is the ivind. — Professor Abbe sums up the conclusions to be 
drawn from these observations of Hellmann, as follows : 

Instead of studying the geographical or horizontal distribution of the total annual 
rainfall, it is safe to assume that that had been uniform for each year over this small 
area, and that we are studying simply the horizontal distribution of a deficiency in 
catch, or a rain-gauge error due to very local winds at the mouths of the gauges. This 
conclusion is confirmed by examining the records in the summer months separately 
from those in the winter. Local showers are frequent during the summer, and irregu- 
larities in horizontal distribution are presumptively greater at that time. During the 
winter the extended layers of clouds give us no a priori reason to expeft large irregu- 
larities in the geographical distribution of snowfall and rain. Hellmann's records show 
that the geographical irregularities in the catch of his gauges are really least in summer 
and greatest in winter, thus confirming our convidlions that on the average of the year 
the precipitation is uniformlj^ distributed, and the variations in catch depend on the 
geographical distribution of the wind at the gauges during the fall of rain and snow. 

NORMAL AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION. 

40. Proper metliod of determining normal precipitatio7i. — Brrors of the very con- 
siderable magnitude which we have noted above, are possible in au}^ record of 
precipitation which we possess. We can, therefore, arrive at a rational idea of the 
normal distribution of precipitation over the United States only by a process of mutual 
adjustment of measured amounts at the different observation stations, and must beware 
of giving close details based on a single record. This method has been followed in the 
preparation of the normal monthly and annual charts of precipitation. Plates IV to XVI. 
The normal data on which these charts are based have been collefted by the Division 
of Records and Meteorological Data of the Weather Bureau, and are given in full in 
the following table : 

Tabi,e XI. — Normal monthly and annual precipitation. 
OHIO DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Stations. 



Cairo, 111 

Indianapolis, Ind 

Bowline; Green, Ky 

Lexington, Ky 

Louisville, Ky 

Murphy, N. C 

Cincinnati , Ohio 

Kenton, Ohio 

Marietta, Ohio 

North Lewisbure:, Ohio. 

Portsmouth, Ohio 

Confluence, Pa 

Pittsburg, Pa 

Chattanooga, Tenu 

Knox ville, Tenn 

Nashville, Tenn 

Wytheville, Va 



.W 00 

39 46 

30 58 

38 02 

38 15 
35 05 

39 o5 

40 40 

39 28 

40 12 
38 42 



35 0+ 

35 56 

36 09 
,36 55 



O 
o 



86 10 

86 25 

84 33 

85 45 
84 02 

84 30 
83 33 

81 26 

83 32 

82 53 
79 21 
So 02 

85 15 

83 5S 

86 49 
81 02 



Precipitation in inches. 



3-7 
2.9 
4.2 
4.1 
3-7 
6.2 
3-3 
3-8 
3-1 
3-6 
3-5 
4.0 
2.6 
6.4 

5-3 
5-0 

3-4 



3-9 
3-4 
5-0 
3-5 
4.0 
6-3 
3-3 
3-3 
3-1 
3-5 
3-2 
3-9 
2-5 
5.6 
5-3 
5-° 
3-3 



3.8 
3-6 
4.7 
4-7 
4.4 
6.0 
3-5 
5- 1 
3-2 
3-2 
3-,'i 
3-5 
2.8 
5.8 
5-4 
5-2 
3-4 



3-8 
3.6 
4-9 
3-8 
4.2 
5-0 
3-3 
3-9 
3-3 
3.1 
3-2 
3-4 
3-0 
4-5 
4.9 

4-7 
3-4 



4.1 
4.0 
4-5 
3-4 
4.1 
3-2 
4.0 
6.0 
3-9 
3-9 
3-5 
4.0 
3-5 
4.1 
4.0 
3-9 
3-7 



4.4 
4-5 
4.0 
4-2 
4.7 
5-4 
4.4 
5-6 
4.1 
4.0 
4.0 
4.4 
3.6 
4-7 
4-2 
4-3 
4.0 



3-4 
4.2 
4-3 
4-7 
4-1 
6-5 
3-9 
5-1 
4-4 
4.4 

3-9 
4.6 
4.0 
4.1 
4.4 

4.3 
4.0 



3-3 
4.1 
3-6 
3-8 
5-3 
3-8 
4.4 

3-9 
3-3 
3-4 
3-7 
3-4 
4.1 
4.0 
3-6 
4.0 



2.6 

3-1 
2.7 
2.6 
3-0 
3-5 
3-0 
3-r 
3-1 
3.2 
2.8 
3-1 
2.9 
3-7 
2.7 
4-1 
3-7 



4.2 
3-8 
4.6 
3-6 
3-9 
4-5 
3-3 
3-8 
3-1 
3-3 
2-9 
3-2 
2.6 
4.0 
3-8 
3-9 
2.6 



3-2 
3-0 
3-4 
3-3 
4-4 
5-2 
3-5 
3-8 
3-4 
2.8 
3-5 
3-6 
2.9 
4-3 
3-9 
3-5 
2.8 



42.6 
42.2 
48.9 
44.0 
47.2 
60.2 
42.1 
50.6 
41.7 
40-5 
40.2 
44.3 
36.6 
53-9 
50.6 
50-2 
41-3 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 



21 



Tabi,e XI. — Normal monthly and annual precipitation — Continued. 
UPPER MISSISSIPPI DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Stations. 



Precipitation in inches. 



Marengo, III 

Peoria, 111 

Ames, Iowa 

Cresco, Iowa 

Davenport, Iowa . 
Keokuk, Iowa — 
Monticello, Iowa . 
Fort Riley, Kans . 
Fort Ripler, Minn 
St. Paul, Minn . . . . 
La Crosse, Wis — 
Madison, Wis 



42 15 

40 42 

42 03 

43 22 

41 30 
40 22 

42 13 
39 02 
46 10 
4i 56 

43 49 



88 37 

89 36 
93 3S 
92 07 

90 3S 

91 26 
Pi 15 
9i 45 



91 15 
89 24 



1-9 
1-7 
r.o 
1-3 
1-7 
1-7 
1.6 
0.6 
0,8 



1.8 



1-9 
2.0 
0.8 
0.9 
1.6 
1-7 
1-7 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
I.I 
1-7 



2.4 
2.6 
1.6 
1.8 
2.2 
2.2 
2.4 
i.o 
1-5 
1-5 
1-5 
2.4 



2.8 
3-2 
2.9 
2.6 
2.8 
3-2 
2.6 

2.0 

1.8 
2-5 

2.4 

2.6 



3-9 

3-8 
4-1 
3-8 
4-2 
4.1 
3-9 
3-4 
3-2 
3-5 
3-3 
3-5 



4-3 
3-7 
4-4 
5-0 
4.2 
4-5 
4-3 
3 9 
4.3 
4.1 
4.5 
4-5 



3-7 
4.0 
4-7 
3-9 
3-6 
4.1 
4-2 
3-7 
4.0 

3-3 
4.0 
4.0 



3-7 
3-0 
3-4 
2.8 
3-6 
2.8 
3-7 
3-7 
3-3 
3-8 
3-2 
3-1 



3-8 
3-5 
3-6 
3-6 
3-2 
3-5 
3.8 
2.8 
3-1 
3-2 
4.2 
3-1 



2-4 

2.4 

2-3 
2-3 

2.6 

2.8 
2.8 

1.6 
1.6 
2.0 

2-3 
2.6 



2.2 
2.4 

1-3 
1-5 

2.» 
2.1 

2.3 
1.2 
1.6 
1-3 
1.6 
1.9 



1.9 
2-3 
I.J 
1.4 
1.6 
2.0 

2 •'3 
o.S 



1-4 
2.0 



34-9 

31-2 
30-9 
33-3 

:■^^■^ 
35.8 
25.6 
27.0 
28.2 
30-7 

33-2 



MISSOURI DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Denver, Colo 

Fort Collins, Colo.... 

Lawrence, Kans 

Hermann, Mo 

Miami, Mo 

Oregon, Mo 

RoUa, Mo 

St. Louis, Mo 

Port Keogh, Mont ... 

Havre, Mont 

Helena, Mont 

Virginia City, Mont . 

Genoa, Nebr, 

Minden, Nebr 

North Platte, Nebr. . 

Omaha, Nebr 

Bismarck, N. Dak — 
Fort Buford, N. Dak. 
Fort Meade, S. Dak.. 
Fort Sully, S. Dak ... 

Huron, &. Dak 

Yankton, S. Dak 

Cheyenne, Wyo 

Fort Washakie, Wyo 



39 45 

40 35 
38 58 

38 41 

39 18 

40 02 

37 56 

38 37 
46 22 
48 32 
46 34 

45 10 

41 25 

40 30 

41 08 

41 16 

46 47 
48 00 
44 26 
44 39 
44 21 

42 54 

41 08 

42 30 



105 


00 


27 


0.6 


0.5 


1.0 


2.0 


2.7 


1-3 


1-7 


1.4 


0.9 


0.9 


0.7 


0.6 




105 


02 


10 


0,7 


0.6 


0.8 


1-7 


2.9 


1-7 


1.8 


1-3 


0.9 


0.9 


0.4 


0.3 




95 


14 


31 


1.2 


1-4 


2-3 


3-2 


4.b 


5-0 


4.7 


3-9 


3-5 


2-7 


I.iJ. 


1-6 




91 


28 


14 


2.2 


2.8 


3-2 


3-4 


4.6 


5-1 


3-7 


3.9 


-3-7 


2.0 


3-2 


2.1 




93 


'5 


49 


1-7 


1.7 


2.4 


3-0 


4.2 


5.0 


4.2 


.3-6 


3-4 


2.8 


2.1 


2.0 




95 


09 


41 


1.6 


1.8 


2.0 


3-3 


4-7 


4-7 


4-3 


4-3 


3' I 


2.6 


1-7 


1.6 




QI 


32 


10 


2.2 


2.9 


3-3 


5-2 


5.1 


4.1 


5-0 


3-4 


3-2 


2-3 


2.3 


2.3 




90 


12 


60 


2.2 


2-7 


3-4 


3-7 


4-7 


5-0 


.3-b 


3-5 


3-1 


2.8 


3-1 


2.8 




105 


5f> 


19 


0.6 


0-5 


0.6 


I.I 


2.2 


2.8 


1.2 


0.9 


0.8 


1.0 


0.5 


0.4 




loq 


42 


16 


0.9 


0.5 


0.5 


1.0 


1-7 


3-1 


2.1 


1.4 


1.2 


0.6 


0.7 


0.5 




112 


04 


15 


1.3 


0.7 


0-7 


I.I 


1.6 


2.3 


I.I 


0.6 


1.2 


• 0.9 


0.8 


0.9 




112 


00 


16 


0.6 


0.6 


I-O 


1.2 


2-7 


2-3 


1.4 


1.2 


1-3 


0.8 


0.7 


0.8 




97 


40 


21 


0.9 


0.8 


1.2 


2.9 


4.1 


4.5 


3-9 


2-5 


2.8 


1.5 


0.8 


0.9 




98 


.56 


18 


I.I 


1.2 


1-5 


3-5 


5-3 


5.4 


5-2 


3-2 


2.4 


1.8 


0.9 


0.8 




100 


45 


29 


0.4 


0.4 


0.7 


2.1 


3.0 


3-5 


2-5 


2.3 


i-5 


0.8 


0.4 


0-5 




"95 


51. 


27 


0.7 


0.7 


1-5 


3-1 


4-5 


5-3 


4.6 


3-3 


3-0 


2.6 


I.I 


1.0 




100 


38 


22 


0.6 


0.6 


I.I 


2-3 


2.5 


3-5 


2-3 


2.0 


1.2 


'1.0 


0.8 


0.6 




103 


55 


29 


0.6 


"•5 


0.6 


1.2 


2.4 


2.8 


1-7 


1.2 


0.8 


0.8 


o.b 


0.6 




i03 


28 


16 


0.8 


o-5 


1.4 


2.8 


.3.5 


3-3 


1.9 


1.7 


0.6 


0.9 


0.7 


0.6 




100 


.39 


25 


0-5 


0.4 


1.2 


2.1 


2.6 


3-3 


2.7 


1.9 


0.9 


0.7 


0.4 


0.5 




PS 


OQ 


14 


0.5 


0.6 


0.9 


2.9 


3-0 


3-6 


3-1 


2.6 


1-4 


. 1.2 


0.6 


0.6 




97 


28 


20 


0.6 


0.8 


1.2 


3-3 


4.0 


4.1 


3-5 


3-0 


2.6 


1-3 


0.6 


0.8 




104 


48 


27 


0.4 


0.4 


0.8 


1.5 


2-3 


1-5 


1.9 


1.6 


1.0 


0.7 


0-3 


0-3 




108 


53 


12 


0.6 


0.4 


1-5 


2.1 


2.2 


1.0 


0.8 


0.6 


0-5 


0.8 


0.7 


0.4 





14.3 
14.0 

.35-9 
38-9 
36.1 
35.7 
41.3 
40.8 
12.6 
14.2 
13-2 
14.6 
26.8 
32-3 
18. 1 
31-4 
18.5 
13-8 
18.7 
17-2 
21.0 
25.8 
12.7 
II. 6 



ARKANSAS DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Fort Smith, Ark 

Lead Hill, Ark 

Little Rock, Ark 

Colorado Springs, Colo 

Las Animas, Colo 

Fort Gibson, Ind. T.... 

Dodge City, Kans 

Independence, Kans - . . 



35 23 


94 


29 


33 


2.1 


3-1 


2.9 


4.8 


4-7 


4.2 


3-9 


3-4 


3-1 


3-2 


•■'•S 


2.7 


36 29 


P2 


45 


15 


2-7 


4.1 


4.1 


4.2 


6.0 


4.8 


5-2 


4.7 


4.0 


3-5 


.3-8 


4-3 


34 45 


P2 


06 


16 


4.9 


5-3 


5-2 


4-8 


.5.8 


4.3 


4.0 


4.1 


3-2 


2.5 


5-3 


4-3 


38 51 


104 


47 


12 


0.2 


0-3 


0.6 


1.4 


2.4 


1-9 


.3-2 


2.2 


I.I 


0.6 


0.3' 


0-3 


38 04 


103 


12 


12 


0.3 


0.4 


0.6 


I.I 


1-9 


1.4 


1.6 


1.6 


0.6 


0-5 


0.2 


0.6 


35 50 


P5 


20 


29 


2. 1 


2.2 


2.5 


4.1 


4-5 


3-9 


2.7 


2.8 


2-7 


3-4 


2.9 


2.1 


37 45 


100 


00 


22 


0.4 


0.6 


0.9 


1.8 


3-1 


3-3 


3-2 


2.8 


1-3 


1-3 


0-5 


0.6 


37 13 


95 


41 


25 


1.6 


2.0 


2.2 


3-7 


4.6 


4.9 


4.2 


3-0 


3-7 


2-7 


1.8 


2.3 



41-7 
51-4 
53-7 
14-5 
10.8 
35-9 
19.8 
36-7 



DRAINAGE BASIN OP THE RED. 



Washington, Ark 
Fort Sill, Ind. T.. 
Shreveport, La.. . 
Port Elliott, Tex. 



33 34 


93 41 


27 


4.8 


4-7 


.5.6 


6.0 


5-2 


3-9 


4-7 


3-9 


3-1 


.3.6 


4-9 


4-4 


34 40 


98 23 


24 


1.2 


1.2 


1-5 


2.7 


4.4 


3-7 


2.9 


3-2 


2.8 


2.7 


1-5 


1.9 


32 30 


93 40 


25 


4-7 


4.2 


4.6 


5-2 


4-2 


3-7 


.3-4 


2.1 


3-7 


3.2 


4.7 


4-5 


35 30 


100 21 


II 


0.6 


0.5 


0.6 


2.6 


4-4 


3-2 


2-3 


3-3 


1.8 


2-5 


0.6 


0.7 



54-8 
29.7 
48.2 
23 I 



CENTRAL VALLEY. 



Helena, Ark 

Mattoon, 111 

Baton Rouge, La . 
New Orleans, La.. 
Bronkhaven, Miss, 
Vicksburg, Miss . . 
Memphis, Tenn... 



3t 33 


90 36 


20 


6.1 


5-2 


6.6 


6.7 


4-5 


4-7 


4-5 


3-5 


3-9 


2.4 


4-8 


4.6 


39 29 


88 24 


15 


2.5 


3.8 


3-4 


4.2 


5-0 


4.8 


3-9 


3-4 


2.9 


2.8 


3-4 


2.7 


30 25 


91 05 


24 


5-1 


4.6 


5-0 


4-7 


4.5 


5-0 


5-3 


5-9 


4-2 


3-2 


5-5 


5-6 


29 58 


90 04 


26 


5-1 


4.4 


5-3 


5-2 


4.8 


6.7 


6.4 


6.0 


4.6 


3-3 


4.1 


4-4 


31 34 


90 29 


12 


4-9 


.5-6 


6.7 


6.9 


4.6 


.5.6 


5-7 


5-«> 


3-7 


2-5 


4-1 


5-0 


32 23 


90 50 


42 


5-3 


4-9 


5-5 


5-3 


4.4 


.3-9 


4.5 


3-* 


3-3 


2.6 


4-7 


4.9 


35 09 


90 03 


26 


5-5 


5-2 


5-9 


5-4 


4.4 


4.6 


3-4 


3-5 


3-1 


2.7 


4.8 


4.1 



57-5 
42. 8 
.S9.6 
60.3 
60.9 
52.7 
52-6 



DRAINAGE TO THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 



Hartford, Conn. .. 
New Haven, Conn 
Washington, D. C. 
Jacksonville, Fla. 

Augusta. Ga, 

Savannah, Ga .... 
Gardiner, Me 



41 25 

41 18 

38 5+ 

30 20 

33 28 

32 05 

44 '4 



72 40 


27 


4-3 


4.0 


4.2 


3-0 


.3.6 


3-0 


4.1 


4.6 


3-2 


3-9 


,3.8 


.3.6 


72 56 


45 


,3.8 


4.0 


,3-8 


3-3 


3-9 


3-1 


4.5 


4.6 


3.8 


3-8 


3-8 


3-4 


77 03 


41 


3-4 


3-1 


3-9 


3-4 


4.1 


3-9 


4.5 


4.0 


3-5 


3-3 


2.7 


3-1 


81 39 


27 


3-1 


3-0 


,3.6 


2.7 


,1.8 


6.1 


6.2 


(■■7 


8.2 


5-2 


2.7 


2.8 


81 54 


27 


4-5 


4.0 


5-1 


3-4 


3-4 


4.6 


\x 


5-0 


3-7 


2.5 


3-0 


3-4 


81 05 


48 


3-1 


2.8 


3-7 


2.7 


,3-8 


.5.8 


7.8 


5-2 


3-0 


2.0 


3-5 


6p 48 


53 


3.6 


3-5 


3-9 


3-4 


3-8 


3-2 


3-2 


3.0 


3-2 


4.1 


40 


3-8 



45-3 
45-8 
42.9 
54.1 
48.0 
50.0 
43-3 



22 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Tabi<E XI. — Normal monthly and annual precipitation — Continued. 
DRAINAGE TO THE ATLANTIC OC'Eh'^- Continued. 



Baltimore, Md 

Camberland. Md 

Boston, Mass 

New Bedford, Mass .. 

Sprin£:field, Mass 

Concord, N. a 

Stratford, N. H 

Atlantic City, N. J.... 
New Brunswick, N. J 

Albany, N. Y 

New Yorlt.N. Y 

Utica, N. Y 

Charlotte, N. 

Hatteras, N. C 

Lenoir, N. C 

WeldoQ.N.C 

Wilmington, N. C 

Dyberry, Pa 

Grampian Hills, Pa .. 

Harrisburg, Pa 

Pliiladelpliia, Pa 

Providence, R. I 

Charleston, S. C 

Kirliwood, S. C 

Lunenburg, Vt 

Birdsnest, Va 

Lynchburg, Va 

Norfolk, Va 

Richmond, Va 



13 




-^ 




J 

















,J 




O 


1 


?.<) 


l8 


,19 


.19 


42 


21 


41 


.19 


42 


OS 


43 


12 


4,1 


.■52 


,19 


22 


40 


.10 


42 


.19 


40 


42 


41 


0,1 


3,S 


13 


IS 


1,1 


,1b 


00 


-lb 


24 


.14 


14 


41 


.18 


40 


.■14 


40 


16 


,19 


.S7 


41 


49 


,12 


47 


M 


17 


44 


2S 


.17 


2.5 


17 


2,'; 


.16 


.';i 


37 


32 



7S 37 

7S 45 

71 04 

70 56 

72 35 

71 33 

72 25 
74 25 



74 


27 


43 


73 


45 


69 


74 


02 


61 


71 


11 


40 


Bo 


SI 


18 


71 


40 


21 


81 


28 


21 


77 


.10 


23 


77 


57 


26 


75 


18 


23 


78 


42 


23 


76 


53 


24 


75 


09 


72 


71 


24 


61 


79 


,56 


89 


80 


33 


32 


71 


41 


44 


75 


52 


27 


79 


09 


26 


76 


17 


26 


77 


2J 


17 



Precipitation in inches. 



3-8 
3-7 
3-5 
3-1 
3-4 
3-6 
3-8 
2.7 
3-4 
3-1 
4-9 
5-9 
4.2 
3-8 
3.8 
3-0 
3-8 
2.8 
3-2 
4.1 
3-0 
3-3 
3-0 
3-8 
3.8 
3.8 
3-3 



3-5 
2.6 
3-5 
3-6 
3-5 
2.8 
2.9 
3-3 
3-6 
2.5 
3-4 
2.9 
4-4 
4-5 
4-3 
3-3 
3-3 
2.8 
3-6 
2.4 
3-1 
3-8 
2.9 
3-2 
2.8 

4.0 

3-6 
3-8 
3-8 



4.1 
2.9 
4.1 
4.0 
3-5 
3-1 
3-3 
3-8 
3-8 
2.8 

3-7 
2.9 

4-5 
6..1 

3-9 
4.0 

3-9 
3..0 
3.7 
2. .7 
3-4 
4.1 
3-5 
3-.6 
3-3 

5;o 
3-8 
4.6 
3-8 



3-4 
2-5 
3-8 
3-6 
3-2 
2.8 
2.5 
3-3 
3-7 
2.8 
3-4 
2.7 
3-4 
4-7 
3-5 
3-4 
2.9 

2-5 
3.5 
3.0 
3:4 
3-7 
2.4 
3-1 
2.6 
3-7 
3-3 
4-3 
3.8 



3-8 
3-4 
3-7 
3-8 
4.2 
3-3. 
3-3 
3-1" 
3-9 
3-6 
4.0 
3-5 
4.1 
4.6- 
4.8 
4.6 
4.2. 
3^4 
4-4 
4.6 
3-8 
3-8 
3-6 
3-6 
3-6 
4.0 
4.0 
4.2- 
4.1 



4.0 
3.8 
3-2 
3-0 
3-8 
3-t 
3-5 
3-0 
3-9 
4.1 
3-8 
4-3 
4-5 
4.6 
4-1 
4.0 
5-7 
3-1 
4.2 
4.4 
3-8 
3-3 
4-8 
3-9 
3-5 
3-2 
3-5 
4.4 

3-4 



4-7 
3-4 
3-6 
3-1 
4-5 
3-7 
4.1 

3-5 
4-7 
4.2 
4.0 
4-7 
5-6 
6.4 
5-1 
5-1 
7-1 
4.6 
4.8 
4.2 
4.0 

3-3 
6.6 
5-2 
3-9 
4-7 
4.1 
5-8 



4.0 
3-2 
4.3 
3-9 
4-5 
3-9 
3.7 
4-3 
4.9 
4.0 
4-7 
3-5 
5-1 
6.4 
5-7 
5-3 
7-3 
3-8 
4.1 
3-9 
4-3 
4-2 
7-2 
5-3 
3-8 
4.6 
3-9 
6-3 
5-0 



3-9 
2.8 
3-4 
3-3 
3-4 
3-4 
3-4 
3-2 
3.8 
3-5 
3-4 
3-5 
3-5 
6.4 
4.6 
4.0 
6.3 
2.8 
3.4 
3-6 
3-5 
3-2 
5-7 
3-9 
3-4 
3-7 
3-9 
4.7 
3-8 



2.9 
2-3 

3-8 
3-7 
4.2 
4.1 
3-1 
3-2 
3-4 
3-5 
3.6 
3-5 
3-6 
6.2 
3-3 
3-8 
3.8 
3-3 
2.9 
3-3 
3-2 
3-8 
3-3 
■ 2.5. 
3-5 
3-8 

3-9 
3-4 



3-0 
2.2 

4-3 
4.0 
3-8 
3-5 
3-4 
3-3 
3-7 
3-0 
3-7 
3-7 
3-0 
5-2 
3-3 
2.4 
2.4 
3-1 
3-0 
2.7 

3-3 
4.2 

2.4 
2.5 
3-2 
3-0 
3-1 
3-1 
2.6 



3-0 
2. 1 
3-9 
3.8 
3-5 
3.0 
3-2 
3-5 
3-5 
2-7 
3-6 
3-4 
4.0 
5-5 
3-6 
3-4 
3-0 
2.8 
3-7 
2.9 
3-3 
3-9 
3-1 
3-5 
2.9 
3-6 
2.9 
3-6 
3-4 



DRAINAGE TO THE GULF OF MEXICO. 



Mobile, Ala 

Montgomery, Ala 

Cedar Keys, Fla 

Port Brook, Pla 

Key West, Fla 

Peusacola, Fla 

Atlanta, Ga 

Quitman, Ga 

Columbus, Miss 

Fort Stanton, N, Mex, 

Santa Fe, N. Mex 

Austin, Tex 

Corsicana, Tex 

El Paso, Tex 

Fort Concho, Tex 

Fort Davis, Tex 

Galveston, Tex 

Rio Grande City, Tex. 
San Antonio, Tex — 



30 41 


88 


02 


.26 


5-1 


4.8 


7.6 


4.6 


4.3 


5-9 


6.7 


6.8 


5-0 


•3-4 


3-9 


4-5 




32 23 


86 


18 


24 


5-4 


5-4 


6.4 


4.8 


4.0 


4.7 


4.6 


4.0 


2.9. 


2.3 


3-4 


. 4.6 




29 08 


83 


02 


10 


3-9 


2.9 


3-4 


2-5 


2-3 


6.8 


8.7 


7-7 


5.4 


2.8 


2.5 


3-0 




28 00 


82 


28 


24 


2.5 


2.8 


3-0 


1-9 


2.9 


7.6 


9.8 


9-5 


6,2- 


2-4 


2.0 


2.3 




24 33 


81 


49 


49 


2.1 


1.6 


1.6 


1.2 


2.9 


4-5 


3-8 


5.0 


6.6 


5.0 


2.0 


1-9 




30 25 


87 


13 


16 


4.7 


3-9 


5-5 


3-5 


3-3 


5-4 


6.7 


8.4. 


4.8. 


3-3 


3-8 


3-9 




33 45 


84 


23 


33 


5-2 


5-1 


5-7 


4-2 


.1-6 


4-1 


3-9 


4-5 


3-7 


2.2 


3-7 


4-5 




30 45 


83 


50 


15 


4.9 


.1-7 


5-1 


4.0 


3-? 


6.6 


6.2 


.5.6 


4-1 


.1-8 


3,2 


3-4 




33 31 


88 


28 


33 


5-4 


.5-8 


6.3 


.5-8 


.1-6 


4-1 


4.7 


4-2 


3-4 


2.2 


4.6 


5-0 




33 29 


105 


.18 


19 


0.6 


0.8 


I.O 


0.6 


1.0 


1-7 


3-2 


,1-8 


2.1 


1.4 


0.8 


1.0 




35 42 


10b 


01 


37 


0.6 


0.9 


0.7 


0.7 


0.9 


I.I 


2.7 


2.7 


1.6 


I.I 


0.8 


0.8 




30 17 


97 


44 


30 


2.2 


2.4 


2-5 


3-0 


4-2 


2.7 


1.8 


2.7 


4.2 


2.7 


2.7 


2.3 




32 04 


90 


27 


17 


3-1 


2.7 


2.8 


4-3 


5-4 


3-3 


2.4 


1.9 


2.6 


2-5 


.1-6 


2.9 




31 47 


106 


.10 


33 


0.4 


0.5 


0-.3 


0.1 


0-3 


0-5 


1.6 


1-9 


1.6 


0.8 


0.5 


0.4 




31 22 


100 


20 


IS 


0.9 


I.I 


1.0 


1-7 


3-4 


2-5 


31 


■2.8- 


3.0 


1.8- 


I.I 


1-4 




3° 38 


J 03 


5b 


20 


0.5 


0.4 


0.4 


0.6 


1.0 


1-7 


3-3 


-.1-8 


3-0 


1.4 


0-5 


0.4 




29 18 


94 


47 


26 


3-6 


3.0 


2.9 


2.8 


3-7 


4-9 


.1.1 


5-3 


6.0 


4-2 


4-3 


3 9 




26 27 


98 


47 


35 


l.l 


0.9 


0.9 


1.2 


2-5 


2-5 


1.4 


2.6 


3-4 


1.9 


0.9 


1.0 




29 25 


98 


25 


25 


1-7 


2.3 


2.0 


2.5 


3-0 


3-1 


2.0 


3-6 


3-6 


1.8 


2.4 


2.0 





62.6 

52-5 
51-9 
52.9 
38.2 
57-2 
50.4 
53-6 
55-1 
18.0 
14.6 
33-4 
37-5 
8.9 
23.8 
17.0 
47-7 
20.3 
30.0 



DRAINAGE TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 



Fort Bayard, N. Mex. 
Fort Wingate, N. Mex 
Salt Lake City, Utah* 



32 46 


108 30 


20 


0.7 


I.I 


0.5 


0.4 


0-3 


C.6 


3-2 


2-7 


1.8 


I.I 


0.7 


0.8 


35 29 


107 45 


30 


I.I 


1.6 


1.0 


0.9 


0.5 


0.6 


2.4 


2.3 


1-3 


I.I 


0.7 


1.0 


40 46 


III 54 


29 


1.6 


1.6 


2.1 


2.0 


2.0 


I.I 


0.9 


1-3 


1.0 


1.6 


1-5 


2.0 



13-9 
14.5 
lS.7 



DRAINAGE TO THE GREAT LAKES. 



Chicago, 111 

Alpena, Mich 

Detroit, Mich 

Grand Haven, Mich 

Lansing, Mich 

Marquette, Mich 

Port Huron, Mich 

Duluth, Minn 

Moorhead, Minn.t 

St. Vincent, Minn.t 

Buffalo, N. Y 

Ithiica, N. Y 

North Hammond, N. Y 

Oswego, N. Y 

Plattsburg Barracks, N. Y, 

Rochester, N. Y 

Cleveland. Ohio 

Toledo, Ohio 

Erie, Pa 

Burlington, Vt 

Embarrass, Wis 

Milwaukee, Wis 



41 54 


87 


.18 


30 


2.1 


2.2 


2.4 


3-0 


3.7 


3-7 


3-4 


2.9 


3-2 


2.7 


2.7 


2.2 


45 05 


83 


.10 


23 


2.5 


2.0 


2.0 


2.2 


3-5 


3-7 


2.9 


3-5 


3.8 


.1.8 


2.8 


2.5 


42 20 


83 


03 


46 


2.0 


1.9 


2.5 


2.6 


3-1 


3-8 


.1.6 


2.6 


.1-0 


2.6 


2.6 


2.2 


43 05 


8b 


13 


25 


2.5 


2.1 


2-3 


2.6 


3-4 


.1-8 


2.8 


2.7 


3.6 


3-2 


3-0 


2.6 


42 44 


84 


20 


33 


l.S 


2.0 


2-3 


2-4 


3-4 


4.0 


3-1 


2.7 


2.9 


2.5 


2.4 


2.1 


46 34 


87 


24 


33 


2.1 


1.9 


1.9 


2-3 


2-9 


3-4 


2.9 


..^■? 


.1-6 


.1-1 


2.8 


2.4 


43 00 


82 


2b 


21 


2.1 


2.4 


2.6 


2.1 


3-4 


3-5 


2.4 


2.6 


2.6 


2.8 


■ 2.8 


2-3 


40 47 


92 


Ob 


26 


I.I 


I.I 


1.6 


2-5 


3-7 


4-5 


.1.6 


3-3 


3-7 


2.6 


1-7 


1-3 


46 52 


96 


44 


15 


0.7 


0.8 


0.9 


2.2 


2.5 


4.4 


3-9 


2.7 


2.1 


1-9 


0.9 


0.7 


48 S6 


97 


14 


24 


0-5 


0.5 


0.8 


1-5 


2-5 


3-9 


2.6 


2.6 


1-7 


1.8 


0-5 


0.6 


42 53 


78 


51 


26 


3-0 


2.8 


2.6 


2.5 


3-4 


3-5 


3-2 


3-2 


3-3 


3-6 


3-5 


3-4 


42 27 


76 


30 


3b 


2.0 


1-9 


2.3 


2.2 


3-4 


3-7 


3-5 


3-0 


3-0 


2.9 


2.6 


2.2 


44 23 


75 


45 


14 


2.9 


2.4 


2,8 


2.1 


• J. 4- 


-2.9 


3-6 


.1.6 


3-5 


4.1 


3-3 


2.8 


43 29 


76 


35 


26 


30 


2-5 


2.6 


2.1 


.2.8 


.1.4 


3-1 


2.6 


2.8 


3-3 


.1:4 


3-4 


44 41 


73 


2b 


35 


1.7 


1-5 


2.0 


1-8 


2.6 


3-0 


3-4 


3-3 


2.9 


2.8 


2.4 


2.0 


43 08 


77 


42 


26 


3-1 


2.7 


2.9 


2-5 


3-3 


3:3 


3.0 


3-0 


2.4 


2.9 


2.8 


2.9 


41 30 


81 


27 


41 


2.5 


2.6 


2.7 


2.7 


3-5 


3-9 


3-4 


3-1 


,1.6 


2.8 


3-1 


2.7 


41 40 


83 


34 


25 


2.1 


2.1 


2.1 


2.2 


3-4 


3-4 


3-1 


2.7 


2.4. 


.2.4 


2.9 


2.4 


42 07 


80 


05 


22 


3-3 


3-4 


2-7 


2-5 


.1-8' 


3-9 


2.3 


3-3 


. 4.0 


.4.1 


4.1 


3-2 


44 28 


73 


12 


53 


1-9 


1-5 


1.8 


1-9 


3-1 


3-2 


4.0 


.1-6 


3-5 


.3-3 


2.6 


1-9 


44 25 
43 02 


89 
87 






2.4 
1.9 




2-5 
2-3 




3-7 
3-4 


5-3 
3-8 


4.5 
3-2 


4-9 
■2.7 


4.1 
3.0 


3-3 
.2.2 


2.7 

2.2 




54 


53 


1.6 


2.8 


1.9 



34- o 
35-2 
32.5 
34.6 
31.6 
32- 2 
31.6 
.10.7 
23-7 
19- 5 
38.0 

32-7 
37-4 
35.0 
29.4 
34-8 
36.6 
31.2 
41. 1 
32.3 
40.8 
3I.O 



♦Drains into Great Salt Lake. 



+ Drains into Red Riyef of the Nortb. 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 23 

41. The tsohyetal charts. — In this table only records covering as mucli as twenty- 
five years, for the most part, are used ; in some regions of considerable size, however, 
no lengthy records have been secured, and a few shorter ones are therefore included. 
These records, erroneous though they be, are, of course, the only source of information 
as to the true normal precipitation. We, therefore, use them, assuming that their 
departures from the truth will, in the aggregate, counterbalance each other. The tabu- 
lar values are laid down on a map of the region covered, and isohyetal lines drawn with 
due regard to the length of the varioiis records, and the agreement of each with those 
at surrounding stations. The precipitation chart so constructed is more accurate than 
the tabular values, and we may, perhaps, assume that the precipitation, as taken from 
this chart, is correal within 3 per cent. From what has been said, it follows that the 
normal precipitation at any given point is more likely to be that shown on these charts 
than that given by an aAual gauge record at the station. 

42. Geographical distribution of precipitation. — The normal precipitation charts are 
instru6live. Noting first the annual distribution of precipitation, as shown on Plate IV, 
it appears that the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, as far east as the one hun- 
dredth meridian, has a yearly precipitation of less than 20 inches. This region con- 
tains the sources of all the western tributaries of the Mississippi. Toward the east 
and south the precipitation increases, the center of heaviest downpour being near the 
mouth of the Mississippi, where the annual depth of precipitation slightly exceeds 60 
inches. Along the Atlantic coast the precipitation ranges from a little more than 40 
inches in the north to something over 50 in the south. Proceeding inland from the 
coast, the isohyetal lines drop rapidly southward, as the Alleghanies are approached, 
again bending northward after the mountains are passed. 

43. Seasonal changes in distribution. — Considering now the monthly charts, we find 
the heaviest downpour in January, amounting to 6 inches, at the southern extremity of 
the Alleghanies. During February and March this center of maximum precipitation 
moves southwest to the Gulf coast near Mobile, Ala. The monthly precipitation at this 
I)eriod is less than i inch over most of the Rocky mountain slope and the western 
plains. During April and May the center of maximum rainfall moves northwest, and 
the precipitation reaches its greatest value over the West, exceeding that of the winter 
months by ^bout an inch. In June the rainy season is inaugurated on the Florida 
peninsula and the Gulf coast, where the monthly downpour is between 6 and 7 inches ; 
at the same time a secondary center of rainfall is found in the lower Missouri valley. 
In July the rainfall becomes still heavier over Florida, and diminishes in the West. 
The conditions of August are very similar to those of July, except that the rainfall is 
more nearly uniform over a large extent of the central Mississippi valley and the 
Northeast. The latter feature is still more prominent in September, the rainfall being 
heavy on the immediate coast of the south Atlantic and the gulf of Mexico, while the 
remainder of the country east of the ninety-fifth meridian has a nearly uniform rain- 
fall of 3 to 4 inches. The same pecviliarity is also noticeable in Oftober, as well as a 
marked diminution of rainfall in the Southeast. In November the winter condition 
reappears, with light precipitation in the West and the heaviest downpour in the lower 
valley of the Mississippi. This condition becomes more intense in December, the 
monthly precipitation exceeding 5 inches in southern Mississippi. 



24 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 
Tabi<e XII. — Normal precipitation in river basins. 





Subdivision. 












Month. 














Basin. 


i 

1— I 


a] 

S 


a 


< 


^ 
S 


a 
a 






(L) 

1 

02 


u 

1 




1 

> 






Year. 




A 


3-3 
3-0 
3-6 
3-8 
3-1 
4-5 
4.8 

3-8 


3-2 

3-0 
3-4 
3-9 
3-4 
4-5 
4.8 

3-8 


3-1 
3-1 
3-7 
4.2 
3-8 
4.8 
4.8 

4.0 


3.0 

3-2 

3-4 
4.0 
3.8 
4.4 
4.4 

3-8 


3-8 
3-7 
3-7 
4.0 

4-5 
4.0 
4.0 

4.0 


4.0 
3-9 

4. I 
4.3 
4.6 
4.2 
4.3 

4.2 


4.0 
4.0 
4.2 
4.1 
4.0 
4.2 
4-5 

4.2 


3.6 
3-7 

3.6 
3.4 
3-6 
4.1 

3.7 


3.3 

3-4 
3-1 
2.8 

3.0 
2.9 

3-5 

3-2 


3.2 
2.9 
2.7 
2.7 

2.8 

2.6 
2.8 

2.8 


3-2 
2.8 

3-1 
3-9 

3.5 
4.0 
3-8 

3-5 


3-4 
2.9 

3-2 

3.6 

3-2 

3.5 
3.8 

3.4 


41. I 




B 


39- 5 




c 


41. 6 


Ohio 


D 


45.0 




E 


43-2 




F 


47.3 




G 


49. 6 




Entire basin. 


44.2 




A 


0.9 
1.6 

1-5 
2.0 

1.4 


0.9 

1-5 

1.4 

2.4 
1.4 


1.4 
2. I 
2. I 
2.7 

1.8 


2.4 
2.7 
2.9 
3-3 

2.8 


3-3 
3-7 
4.0 
4.2 

3-7 


4.2 
4.4 
4.7 
4.3 

4.4 


3-6 
3-8 
4.2 
3-7 

3-8 


3-2 

3.3 
3-3 
3.4 

3-3 


3.1 
3-5 
3-6 
3.2 

3-3 


1.9 
2.5 
2.6 
2.6 

2.3 


1.4 
2. 

1-9 
2.6 

1-9 


1. 1 

1. 8 
1.8 

2. 2 

1.6 


27. 5 


Upper 
Mississippi. 


B 


32.8 


c 


33- 7 


D 


36.7 




Entire 


basin. 


31.9 




A 


0.8 
0.6 
0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 

0.5 
1.6 

0.7 


0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.6 
0.7 
0.5 
0.7 
1-9 

0.7 


0.6 
1. 
1.0 

1-3 
I. t 
I. I 
0.9 

2.4 

I. I 


1. 1 

1-7 
2. 1 
2.7 
2.8 
2. 2 
2. I 
3-5 

2. I 


2. I 
2.6 

2.8 

3-4 
3-3 
3.0 
3-4 
4.6 

3-0 


2.8 
2.4 

3-2 

3-6 
4.2 
2.5 
3-5 
4-9 

3-2 


1.6 
1.4 
2. 

2.7 
3-5 
2. 2 

3-4 
4.4 

2.4 


1. 1 
1. 1 
1.6 
2. 2 

2.7 
1.7 
2.8 
3-6 

1-9 


1. 

0.8 
0.9 
1.4 
2. 1 
1.4 
1.8 

3.3 
1-5 


0.8 
0.9 
0.9 
1.0 
1.6 
I. I 
I. 2 

2-5 
I. 2 


0. 6 
0.6 
0.7 
0.6 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
2.0 

0.8 


0. 6 
0.6 
0.6 
0.6 
0.7 
0.6 
0.6 
1.8 

0.7 


13.6 




B 


14-3 
17. 




c 




D 


20. 6 


Missouri. 


E 


24. I 




F 


17.3 
21. 7 




G 




H 


36.6 
19.4 




Entire 


basin . 




A 


0.6 
0.9 
1.8 
3.6 

1.6 


0.8 

I.O 

2. I 
3-9 

1.8 


I. I 

1. I 

2.4 
4-3 

2. 


2.0 
2. 2 
3-9 
5-0 

3.0 


3.0 
3.2 
4.6 

5-2 

3.8 


2.9 
2.8 

4.4 
4.4 

3-4 


2.6 
3.4 
4.3 

3-2 


2.4 
2.7 
2.9 
3-7 

2.9 


1-7 
1.8 
3.2 
3.4 

2.3 


1-3 
1-9 

2.8 
2. 1 


0.7 
I. I 
2.4 
3-8 

1.8 


I. 

1. I 

2. 2 
3-5 

1.8 


20. 4 
22.3 
36.3 
48.0 

29. 6 




B 


Arkansas. 


c 




D 




Entire 


basin . 




A 


0.9 

4-9 

2.9 


0.9 

4.8 

2.8 


I. I 

5-2 

3-1 


2.6 

5-3 

3-9 


4.4 
4.9 

4.6 


3-4 
4.0 

3-7 


2.6 

4.2 

3-4 


3-2 

3-4 
3-3 


2-3 

3-3 
2.8 


2.6 
3.0 

2.8 


I. I 

4-9 

2.9 


1-3 
4-5 

2.9 


26. 4 
52.4 

39-1 


Red. 


B 




Entire 


basin. 




A 


2.6 

4-5 
4.6 
5.6 

5-2 

5-1 
4.5 


3-3 
4.6 
4.6 
5-3 

5-2 

4.5 
4.5 


3-5 
5- I 
4.8 
6.1 
5-9 

5-2 

5.0 


4.2 
5-0 
4.6 
5.8 
5-7 
5-0 

5.0 


4-7 
4.8 
4.2 
4.2 

4.3 
4.6 

4.5 


4.6 
4.6 
4-5 
4-3 
4.6 
5-8 

4.7 


4.0 
4.1 
3-4 
4.3 
5-3 
6.4 

4-5 


3.3 
3-6 

3-2 

3-6 
4.8 
6.0 

4.0 


3.0 
3-4 
2.8 

3-4 
3-6 
4.4 

3.4 


2.6 
2.8 
2.7 

2.5 
2.6 
3.2 

2.8 


3-2 

4.4 
4-5 
4-7 
4.7 
4.8 

4-5 


2.8 
4.0 
3.6 
4.6 
5.1 
5.0 

4.1 


41.9 
51.0 
47.6 
54.5 
57.1 




B 




c 


Central Valley. 


D 




E 




F 




Entire 


basin . 


51.4 


Entire Mississip 


pi basin 




1.8 


I. 8 


2. 2 


2.9 


3-6 


3-7 


3-2 


2.7 


2-3 


1-9 


1-9 


1.8 


29.8 



Note. — It will be noted that the sum of tlie 12 monthly values for some districts in the above table does not 
agree exactly with the annual value. This arises from the fail that the latter has been computed from the annual values 
of Table XI by the same process by which each monthl)' value has been computed from the corresponding monthly 
values of that table. 

NORMAL PRECIPITATION ON THE WATERSHEDS. 
44. Method of its compittation. — The logical process for finding the average precipi- 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 25 

tation over any watershed would be by planimetric measurements from the precipitation 
charts. Very nearly the same results, however, can be more easily obtained by deter- 
mining the average precipitation over each of the small divisions, into which the whole 
Mississippi basin has been divided on the drainage map, Plate I, by a combination of 
the stations in and about the region considered. In the tables which were given in 
Section I, the ratio of the area of each of these small divisions to the larger basin of 
which it is a part has been given. If the precipitation over each small division be 
multiplied by this ratio and the various products added together, the result will be the 
average precipitation for the entire basin. By this process the error resulting from an 
unequal distribution of stations is almost wholly avoided, and the only faulty part of 
the procedure lies in the fa6l that the precipitation may be inaccurately determined for 
some of the small divisions. Following the method outlined above, we dedtice the 
values of normal precipitation on the various watersheds, which are set forth in Table 
XII. It is not deemed necessary to give in detail the various combinations of stations 
from which the precipitation over the various drainage areas is determined. The sta- 
tion records have already been given in full in Table XI, and anyone can readily test 
the accuracy of the computation in any case. 

45. Average precipitation on the various watersheds. — It is seen, from an examina- 
tion of the above table, that the Missouri basin receives the least downpour, 19.4 inches, 
in the year, and the Central Valley the greatest, 51.4 inches, amongst the six grand 
divisions of the Mississippi drainage basin. The average precipitation of the whole 
basin is about 30 inches per annum, being lightest in winter and heaviest about the 
first of June; the ratio of summer to winter downpour is very closely two to one. As to 
the distribution of precipitation during the year, the Mississippi basin may be divided 
into two parts. The southeastern third is marked by a fairly uniform and abundant 
downpour throughout the year. This sedlion embraces all of the Ohio basin and the 
Central Valley, the southeastern part of the Upper Mississippi basin, a small part of 
the lower Missouri basin, and the lower Arkansas and Red basins. The remaining 
two-thirds of the Mississippi basin has a very deficient precipitation during the four 
months from November to February, inclusive, followed by a rapidly increasing down- 
pour, until a well defined maximum is attained in May or June. The difference in the 
amount of summer and winter precipitation over this area is ver}^ great, the former 
being five or six times the latter in some distridls. 

NORMAL DOWNFALL OF WATER. 

46. Doivnfall in the six chief divisions of the Mississippi basin. — Having determined 
the areas of the component basins and the normal precipitation over each, it is a simple 
computation to find the corresponding downfall of water. In the following table this 
is given for the six grand divisions of the Mississippi basin for each month and for the 
year, as computed from the data of Tables I and XII. The amount of downfall is 
stated in units of ten millions of cubic j^ards. 

4 MISS 



26 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Table XIII. — Noniial vionthly and annual downfall in river basins. 
[Unit of 10,000,000 cubic yards.] 



Basin. 



Ohio 

Upper Mississippi. 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Red 

Central Valley — 



Total . 



Month. 



Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec 



6.595 
i,9<)S 
3.175 
2,565 
2,246 
2,672 



19.251 



6.595 

l.99« 

3.175 

885 

168 

672 



19. 493 



6.942 
2.570 
4,989 
3.206 
2,4or 
2,968 



23.076 



6,595 
3.997 
9.525 
4,809 
3,020 
2,968 



30,914 



6,942 
5.282 
13,608 
6, 091 
3.562 
2,672 



38.157 



7.289 
0,281 
14.515 
5,450 
2,865 
2,790 



,39. 190 



7,289 
5,424 
10,886 
5.130 
2.633 
2,672 



34.03t 



6,421 

4.711 
8,618 
4,649 
2.5.56 
2.375 



29.330 



5.551 
4.7" 
6.804 
3.687 
2,i6S 
2,019 



24.943 



4,860 
3.2S3 
5.413 
3,366- 
2,168 
1,662 



6,074 
2,712 
3.629 
2,885 
2,246 
2,672 



5.90t 
2,284 

3.175 
2,88d 
2,246 
2,434 



20,782 I 20, 2r8 j 18,926 



Year. 



76, 710 
45-537 
S7. 995 
47,449 
30,279 
30.517 



318,487 



Note.— In this table, as in Table XII, the annual values have been computed from the annual values of the preceding table, and 
hence are not, as a rule, exactly equal to the sums of the monthly values. The result secured by this process is slightly more accurate 
than by summing tlie months. 

NORMAL DISCHARGE OF THE RIVERS. 



47. Determination of discharge. — The only accurate method of ascertaining the 
volume of water which passes a given point on a river, is by the diredl measurement 
of the cross section and velocity of the current. The cross sedlion in square feet, multi- 
plied by the mean velocity in feet, will obviously give the volume of discharge in cubic 
feet. The velocity, however, varies greatly in different portions of the cross se6lion, 
this variation following a certain law, which was carefully investigated by Humphreys 
and Abbot. It is plain that the cross sedlion can be stated in terms of the height of 
the water surface, that is to say, in terms of the river stage as shown by gauge. The 
velocity, however, is not capable of similar correlation to the stage of river, but also 
depends upon the local slope of the water surface. The contention was made by Hum- 
phreys and Abbot that in the average of a year, or from beginning to end of a flood, 
covering both the rising and falling stages of the river, the velocity, as well as the 
cross sedlion, would bear a fixed relation to the stage, and hence that from the average 
annual stand of the river, the volume of its discharge could be inferred, after the neces- 
sary measurements had been made once for all. Much doubt has been cast upon this 
proposition by subsequ.ent investigations, and no satisfa6tory connection between the 
stage and the discharge has been determined as yet. 

48. Available data. — A great deal of work has been expended on discharge measure- 
ments since the initiative by Humphreys and Abbot, but, so far as ascertained, no full 
discussion has been made of the various series of observations, and the normal dis- 
charges of the component basins remain to-day largely a subjeA of conjefture and esti- 
mate. Humphreys and Abbot, b}^ actual daily measurements for a year, determined the 
discharge of the Mississippi both above the mouth of the Red and below the effluent 
bayous. By a comparison of the simultaneous gauge readings, made during the j^ear, 
with the discharge measurements, the average relation of stage and discharge was 
determined. Then, from a long series of gauge readings made at the same points, the 
normal discharge of the river was computed and found to be pra5lically the same above 
the motith of the Red and below the outlet bayous. From this it appears that the dis- 
charge of the Red was equivalent to that of the bayous. The discharge of the latter 
was also measured. One of these outlet bayous, the Plaquemine, has since been closed, 
and hence the discharge of the Mississippi at its mouth, as determined at that time, 
should now be increased by the former discharge of bayou Plaquemine. The discharge 
of the Arkansas was also subjedled to direft measurement by Humphreys and Abbot. 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 



27 



Prom a consideration of the rainfall in conne6lion with discharge measurements made 
on the Upper Mississippi, above St. Paul, and a comparison of the charadler of this por- 
tion with the remainder of the Upper Mississippi basin, Mr. Jas. L. Greenleaf, of the 
Mississippi River Commission, has estimated '-'that in this basin 27.5 per cent of the 
downfall is discharsred. 

49. Conipiitatioii of normal discharge. — The data above enumerated forms the basis 
from which to estimate the normal discharge of the six grand divisions of the Missis- 
sippi basin. We have by diredl determinations of more or less accuracy the discharge 
of the Mississippi at its mouth, of the Red and Arkansas rivers, and outlet bayous. 
The total discharge from the basin will be that of the Mississippi proper, increased by 
that of bayous Atchafalaj^a and L.a Fourche. From the known discharge and downfall 
of the Arkansas basin we find their ratio to be 0.156. Humphreys and Abbot, and 
also Greenleaf, assumed, from their physical similarity, that the ratio of discharge 
to downfall would be the same in the Arkansas and Missouri basins. The latter is 
decidedly the drier, and it is reasonable to suppose that the ratio will be rather less 
than greater. We may, perhaps, assume the discharge to be 15 per cent of the down- 
fall, which is the value employed by Humphreys and Abbot. Adopting Greanleaf's 
estimate of 0.275 ^^ the ratio for the Upper Mississippi, and 0.300 for the Ohio basin, 
we can compute, from the downfalls given in Table XHI, the discharge from each of 
the six divisions, except the Central Valley. As the total discharge from the basin is 
known, we readily compute that of the Central Valley by simple subtra6lion. Pur- 
suing this method we obtain the data of the following table : 

Tabi^E XIV. — Normal animal discharge from river basins. 



Basin. 



Ohio 

Upper Mississippi 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Red 

Central Valle}' 

Mississippi above the Red 

Mississippi at its mouth 

Bayous Atchafalaya and La Fourche. . . 

Total discharge from Mississippi basin 



Annual discharge in 
cubic yards. 



230, 130,000,000 
125, 230,000,000 
131,990,000,000 
74, 070, 000, 000 
66, 670, 000, 000 
157, 100,000,000 

718,520,000,000 

724, 360, 000, 000 
60, 830, 000, 000 



785, 190,000,000 



Ratio of discharge 
to downfall. 



o. 300 
0.275 
o. 150 
o. 156 
o. 220 
0.515 



o. 247 



50. Rejuarks upon the computed discharges. — The process followed in computing 
this table differs from that pursued by Humphre^^s and Abbot, and the results differ 
essentially. It was assumed b}- those investigators that the discharge in the distri(?ts 
which we have included under the designation of Central Valley, was 90 per cent of the 
downfall, but, as pointed out by Greenleaf, there is reason for thinking this too high. 
Their method, indeed, was to assign first the discharge for all the basins except the 
Ohio and Upper Mississippi and, assuming the ratio of discharge to downfall the same 
in each of the latter, to divide the residual discharge between them. Subsequent inves- 
tigations, however, have established the ratio of discharge to downfall in these basins 



* Sedtion on Hydrology in Report on the Water Power of the Mississippi river, Tenth Census. 



28 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

more accurately than in the Central Valley, and the process followed here has been to 
first assign the discharge of basins other than the Central Valley, leaving the residual 
to that region. This leads to the conclusion that the discharge in the latter se6lion is 
about 52 per cent of the downfall. The Central Valley includes about 30,000 square 
miles of swamp land and 39,000 square miles of upland; the ratio over the former is 
doubtless much greater and over the latter much less than this average. 

51. Differences in normal drainage. — Assuming, as we probably may, that the 
figures of Table XIV fairly represent the annual discharges from the various basins, 
we see that the Ohio basin and the Central Valley, together, furnish nearly one-half of 
the total discharge of the Mississippi, although in area they form but 22 per cent of its 
basin. The discharge from each of these drainage areas largely exceeds that from the 
great Missouri basin. It is obvious that the size of a river basin does not measure 
its hydrological importance; in addition to its size, must be considered the doivnpour 
of rain over it and the ratio of its discharge to downfall. Of the downfall of water over 
the "Mississippi drainage basin there is discharged to the sea, on an average, 25 per 
cent ; the remaining 75 per cent must be ultimately returned to the clouds, although a 
considerable part is first incorporated into vegetable growth. The relation is seen to 
be a very variable one in different localities, and doubtless also varies with the season. 
Under conditions of great aridity the drainage will be «//, and under those of the highest 
humidity may probably reach 95 per cent of the downfall over a considerable region. 

NORMAL RIVER STAGES. 

52. Measurement of the stage of a river. — By the stage of a river is meant simply 
the height of the water surface at a given point above (or below) a fixed plane of 
reference. There is no natural plane of reference, unless that corresponding to the 
normal annual stage might be so considered. In point of faA, the plane of reference 
is an arbitrary one, seledled as accurately as may be at the level of lowest known 
water. In few cases does the reference plane coincide with the level of extreme low 
water with close accuracy. Having seledled the plane of reference, the vertical distance 
in feet and tenths of a foot above this plane is indicated on a vertical or slanting sur- 
face washed by the river, or, in some instances, the relation of water surface to plane of 
refeixnce is determined by measviring from an elevated point upon a bridge to the river 
surface, the height of the bridge above the reference plane being known. 

53. Value of river stage jneasurements. — Although, as already pointed out, it is 
impossible at the present time to deduce the flow of water past the station from the 
stage of the river, yet the stage in itself is of value. It indicates the danger of over- 
flow in the adjacent portion of the river. The stage at which injury begins depends, 
of course, on the charadler of the banks and adjacent lands. The corresponding height 
on the river gauge is called the danger line. Indeed, it is obvious that the danger at 
a given place arises diredlly from the height of a river, without regard to the volume of 
its flow. The stage may, therefore, be itself made a subjeft of stud}^, and may be 
regarded as an index to the state of the river, all important in the immediate locality, 
and somewhat less important than the discharge for lower points on the river. The 

. record of river stages is happily of considerable extent, covering more than a quarter 
of a century at many stations, and affords the means of computing normal values 
throughout the year at several points on the Mississippi and its tributaries, 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 29 

54. Stations seleRed for study. — Eleven stations have been selected, and normal 
data computed for them, the latter taken chiefly from the published stages of the Mis- 
sissippi River Commission. On the Mississippi, Keokuk is taken to represent the 
regimen of the Upper Mississippi; the lower river is represented by St. Louis below 
the mouth of the Missouri, Cairo at the mouth of the Ohio, Memphis at the head of 
the Yazoo bottom, Vicksburg below the confluence of the Arkansas and at the mouth 
of the Yazoo, and Carrollton, a suburb of New Orleans, below all the tributaries and 
the outlet bayous. The Tennessee, which is the chief tributary of the Ohio, enters 
the latter so near its mouth that any station below it will be affedled by very high 
water in the Mississippi at Cairo; and, hence, Cincinnati, on the Ohio, and Johnson- 
ville, on the Tennessee, are both taken to represent the conditions in the Ohio basin. 
The regimen of the Missouri is well shown by the observations at Hermann. On the 
Arkansas, Little Rock is sele6led, and on the Red, Shreveport. 

55. Method of conipitting normals. — The daily gauge readings at these stations 
have been first added in pentads from the first day of each month, the incomplete pentad 
in February being summed by itself, and the last six days of the months of 31 days 
being combined. The resultant sums have been obtained for these periods throughout 
the whole series of years in the record, and then divided by the corresponding number of 
days included. Any given quotient is taken as the normal stage for the middle of the 
period covered. The normal stages, as first obtained, are referred to the arbitrary zero 
planes of the various gauges. Corredlions are finally applied to each station record in 
order to reduce its stages to the plane of lowest known water. The values, so corredled, 
and plotted on cross-se6lion paper, give the normal hydrographs of Plate III. 

56. Normal regimen of the rivers. — An examination of these hydrographs discloses 
in the Upper Mississippi, at Keokuk, a single swell in the year, reaching its height 
about May 9, and then falling steadily to the latter part of August. From the latter 
date to the end of January, a period of more than five months, the river is at pradlically 
the same low level. The annual rise then begins, continuing to the May crest. 

In the Missouri, at Hermann, a swell appears after the minimum, which occurs 
about December 20, and obtains a minor maximum toward the end of April. The 
river then falls slightly to the middle of May, after which it rises rapidl}^ to its highest 
point about June 29. From the June maximum to the December minimum there is a 
continuous fall, most rapid at first. 

The Mississippi below the mouth of the Missouri, at St. Louis, shows the effect of 
the earlier rise in the Upper Mississippi, and the later one in the Missouri, by a much 
longer period of high water, with two crests. The river is at a low stage from early in 
September to the end of January, while the lowest water occurs in the middle of 
December. From the beginning of February to the end of April the river rises 
rapidly. This high water lasts to the middle of May, and is succeeded by a slight fall 
and a subsequent second rise to a high stage during the latter half of June; the river 
is thus in fiood for over two months. From the first week in July there is a steady 
and rapid fall to the low water of September. 

The regimen of the Ohio is shown by the hydrographs for the main stream at 
Cincinnati, and the Tennessee at Johnsonville. These curves are much more irregular 
than those already considered, a fa(?t probably due to the disturbing effedl of the great 
floods of this region, for the record at Cincinnati is the longest we have, thirty-nine years. 
There is seen to be a single annual oscillation, upon which, in our curves, are superim. 



30 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RI\'ER. 

posed many small flu6luations, probably adventitious. The lowest stage is reached 
two months earlier than in the Missouri river, and about the middle of Odlober. By 
the first of November a sharp rise sets in, and continues to the latter part of January 
without interruption. There is then a slight falling olT, the rise being resumed at the 
beginning of February. On our hydrographs the highest stage is reached on February 
20 at Cincinnati, and on March 24 at Johnsonville, but the curves, as already remarked, 
are irregular, and probably the normal maximum occurs about March 10. The water 
remains high to the middle of April, after which a rapid fall sets in and, b}' the first 
of August, ver}^ low stages are reached. 

The early rise of the Ohio, and those following later in the upper Mississippi and 
Missouri, produces in the Mississippi at Cairo a main swell, which reaches its height 
about April 15. This is preceded by a slight rise at the end of February, perhaps due 
to the melting snow, and its decline is checked during June by the Missouri rise. 
Except for the stationary stage during June, the fall is stead}^ from the highest stage 
on April 15 to the lowest on Ocfhober 20, occupying almost exaftly six months. The 
reversal of its course is sudden, and it moves steadily upward from 06lober 20 to April 
15, following the regimen of the Ohio. The stages at Memphis are a duplication of 
those at Cairo, except that the curve is smoother and its maximum and minimum are 
found about four days later. The retardation in the fall of the river during June is 
much less marked. 

In the hydrographs of the Arkansas river, at Little Rock, we have another curve 
of great irregularity, the reason for which is not clear. The river is seen to be pra6li- 
cally at its lowest stage from the middle of August to the middle of November. A 
gradual swell then commences, and attains its maximum about May 4. For a month 
the river remains at nearly the same stage, and then declines slowlj^ to its autumn 
minimum, the annual range being about 8 feet. 

Little effe6l is produced on the Mississippi by the normal discharge of the Arkansas. 
The h3'drograph at Vicksburg closely resembles that at Memphis, but is much more 
smooth in its sweep. Its single annual maximum is attained about April 30, and from 
that time a steady fall takes place until 0(?tober 29. The stationary period, observed 
in June at Cairo and Memphis, is barely apparent, as a slight flexure in the curve. 
The annual range is about 35 feet. 

The regimen of the Red river, as shown by the hydrograph at Shreveport, is 
similar to that of the Arkansas, the highest stage occurring about Ma}^ 18, and the 
lowest about September 26. The annual range, however, is much greater. Its dis- 
charge apparently produces no effedl on the Mississippi. At Carrollton, within 116 
miles of its mouth, the annual oscillation of the Mississippi is a long, steady rise of 
six months' duration and a corresponding fall. The June rise is here apparent only as 
a slight diminution in the rate of fall. 

57. Mean and extreme river stages. — The date and height of mean high and low 
water are most accurately obtained from the charted hj-drographs, and their difference 
gives the mean annual range of the river. From the original records are computed the 
mean annual stage, and from the same source we obtain the date and stage of highest 
and lowest known water. When the river stages are referred to lowest water, the high- 
est water necessarily indicates the absolute range in river height. The above data, 
together with the length of record and established height of danger line, are given in 
the following table for our eleven seledled stations : 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND DRAINAGE. 



31 



I 



■53 



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32 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



From the pentad means already computed, we readily deduce the normal monthly 
river stages of the following table, which may prove of utility : 



Tabi,e XVI. — Normal monthly river stages, referred to the plane of lowest water. 



Station. 



St. Louis, Mo 

Cairo, 111 

Memphis, Tenii . . . 
Vicksburg, Miss. . . 
Carrollton, La. . . . 
Johnsonville, Tenn 
Cincinnati, Ohio . . 
Keokuk, Iowa. . . . 
Hennann, Mo. . . . 
Little Rock, Ark . . 
Shrevepprt, La ... . 



8.8 

23-3 

i8. 6 

27. 6 

6.5 

13-9 

21. 7 

5-8 

7-7 

9-1 

19. o 



pi< 



10.5 

30-7 
23.8 

36.4 
10.3 

18.5 

26.3 

5.6 

9-5 

II. 2 



14. 6 
34-2 

27-5 
42.4 
12. 4 

19-5 
26.5 

7-7 
II. I 
II. 5 
24.4 



■c 

ft 
< 



19-3 
36. o 

29-5 

45. 

13. 

17. 

25. 

10. 

14. 

II. 7 

23-7 






20. 2 
29.8 

25-4 
43-3 

13-2 

9.0 
18.0 
11-5 
13-9 
13.2 

24-5 



20. 2 
26. 2 

21. 7 

37-9 
II. 4 

6.7 
12.4 

9-9 
16. 2 
II. 8 
22.0 



18.5 
23.0 
19. 2 

33-5 
9.2 

4.7 
9.0 
8.1 

15-5 
9-4 

17.5 



< 



12. 7 

15. I 

12. 9 

23.0 

5.5 

3-5 

7-5 

5.0 

II. 7 

7.3 
13.0 



o 

O 



9-1 

8.7 
7-3 

12. 9 
3-2 
2.7 
6.0 
5-4 
7-7 
6.0 

10. I 



a 

> 
o 

"A 



8.8 
12.3 

9-3 

14. 6 

3-2 

4.4 

10.3 

4.9 

7-4 

6.3 

11.9 



a 



7.2 

15.9 
12.4 

19-3 
4. 6 
6.9 

15.9 



4. 
6. 

7- 
14. 



SECTION III. 

THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 

Constant liabilitj' to flood in the alluvial regions. — Notable floods. — Floods since 1870. — Frequency and duration of 
floods. — Chief floods of the past quarter-century. — Six floods seleifted for study. — Precipitation in the six floods. — 
Downfall in the six floods. — Flood of 18S2: Its two swells. — The downfall which caused it. — Origin of the 
flood. — Flood of 1883: Itssingle great rise. — The accompanying precipitation. — Flood of 1SS4: Its main features. — 
Distribution of rainfall. — Flood of 1890: The rise in three swells. — Origin of the flood. — Flood of 1893: A sum- 
mer flood. — The source of it. — Flood of 1897: Its chief features. — The rainfall and probable drainage. — Source of 
the flood. — Relative importance of these six floods. — Cause of Mississippi floods. 



A 



S the greater and more fertile portion of the lands bordering the Mississippi 
from Cape Girardeau to the Gulf are below the high-water level of the river, 
the history of damage from the overflow of the Mississippi begins with the 
first settlement of the valley. The first permanent establishment of Europeans on the 
Lower Mississippi was at Natchez and New Orleans. The former town was built on 
the bluff above danger of flood, but the initial plans for New Orleans, in 171 7, pro- 
vided for a levee in front of it. Ever since that time there has been a constant 
struggle to keep back the floods of the river from the towns and plantations along its 
banks. Nearly every year some portion of the valley is inundated, but the notable 
floods occur at longer intervals. The great floods of the past were made a special sub- 
ject of inquiry by Humphreys and Abbot, who collecfted data for all known floods up 
to that of 1S59. The record has been continued to 1S74 by Abbot in the report of the 
special commission of engineers, authorized by Congress in 1874, " to investigate and 
report a permanent plan for the reclamation of the alluvial basin of the INIississippi 
river subjedl to inundation." Since that time the stage of river has been recorded daily 
at many points. 

FLOODS OF THIS CENTURY. 

58. Notable floods. — Prior to 1798 little is known, except by tradition, as to the 
occurrence of floods. The notable floods of this century up to 1870 are those of 181 5, 
1828, 1844, 1849, 185O) 1851, 1858, 1859, 1862, 1865, ^11^ 1867. Of floods subsequent 
to that of 1867 there are abundant gauge readings ; the j^ears in which notable floods 
occurred during this time are 1874, 1882, 1884, 1890, 1893, and 1897. The flood of 
1858 was made the subjedl of careful measurement by the Delta Survey, and has sen-ed 
ever since as the standard of comparison. It was long thought to represent the full 
possibility of danger from flood, but its high-water marks were far exceeded by the flood 
of the present year. A comparative table of flood heights for the notable floods from 
1828 was worked out by Humphreys and Abbot, and was subsequently brought down 
to 1 8 74 by AbbDt, in the report referred to above. In the following table this comparison 

5 MISS 



34 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



has been extended to include the flood of this year. The plane of reference is the flood 
level of 1858. A plus sign indicates that the flood in qtiestion exceeded that of 1S5S, 
and a minus sign that it fell short of this height. 

Tabi^e XVII. — Flood heights for great floods from 1S2S, refei red to the flood level ofiSjS. 



Station. 



1844. 



1849. 



1850. 



185 1. 



1858. 



1859. 



1862. 



Feet. 



Feet. 



Feet. 



Feet. 



Feet. 



Cairo, lU 

Memphis, Tenn . 

Helena, Ark 

Vicksburg, Miss. 
Natchez, Miss . . . 
Baton Rouge, La , 
Carrollton, La . . . 



—1.3 
—1.5 
—0.6 
+0.7 
+0. 2 
+0.1 



— i.o 
—2.4 
— O.S 
+0.1 
—0.6 
—0.6 



—3.3 
— i.S 
—0.6 

— 0-3 
+0.4 
+0.1 



—0.6 
—I.S 
+0.1 

—0.5 
o. o 

—1.3 



— 1.0 

-4.8 



—0.7 

o. o 

+0.3 



Feet. 
0.0 
o. o 
o. o 
0.0 
0.0 
o. o 
0.0 



Feet. 

—3.1 
■ — o. I 
— 1.0 

+ 1.3 
+ 1.2 

+0.5 
+0.4 



Feet. 

+ 1.2 

+0.5 
+ 1.8 
+2. 2 
+2.1 

+ 1-3 
+0.8 



Station. 



1865. 



1867. 



1874. 



1882, 



1890. 



1893. 



1897. 



Cairo, 111 

Memphis, Tenn . . 

Helena, Ark 

Vicksburg, Miss. 
Natchez, Miss . . . 
Baton Rouge, La. 
Carrollton, La. . . 



Feet. 
—1.6 
—0.6 
— o. 2 
—0.5 



Feet. 
+0.9 
o. o 

+ 1.2 

— O. I 

— o. % 



Feet. 
— 2. 2 

—0-3 

+ 1.2 
—3-2 

—2.6 

+1.5 
+1.0 



Feet. 

+2.3 

+0.9 

+2.6 

— o. I 

-0.4 

+ 1.3 
o. o 



Feet. 

+2. 2 
— o. I 

+2.4 
+0. I 
—0.8 
+ 1.4 
+0.6 



Feet. 
—0.8 

+ 1.3 
+3-1 
+0.1 

+0.4 
+ 1.9 
+ 1.0 



Feet. 

—0.3 
+0.9 

—3.3 
+0.6 
— 1.4 

+3-7 
+2.4 



Feet. 

+2.0 
+2.8 
+7.2 
+3.4 

+ 2.8 

+5-9 
+4.0 



59. Floods since i8jo. — The establishment of numerous permanent river gauges in 
1 87 1 has greatly facilitated a study of the floods since that time. In Table XVIII, the 
highest and flood waters of each year from 1872 to 1897, inclusive, are given, with their 
dates and duration. The later feature is set forth in the number of days the river was 
above the danger line of the gauge. The five stations, St. lyouis, Cairo, Memphis, 
Vicksburg, and Carrollton are selefted, as well typifying the different se6lions of the 
lyower Mississippi river. As has been done in the previous tables of Sedlion II, the 
river stages are here referred to the plane of lowest water. Whenever more than one 
period of flood occurs in the same year, the highest water of each flood is given. 



Tabi,iC XVIII. — Floods and highest 'waters in the Loiver IMississippi for each year from iSj2 to iSg-j, inclusive. 

[Stages referred to the plane of lowest water.] 
ST. LOUIS, MO. 



Year. 



Highest 
stage. 



1872 
1S73 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
18S0 
i8Si 
1882 
1883 



Feet. 



23.7 
26. I 
19. 1 
30.5 
32.7 
27.3 
26.5 
21. 9 
26. 2 
34.3 
33-1 
35.5 



Date. 



June 12-14 • 
Apr. II . . . . 
Jime 19,20. 

Aug. 3 

May 10 ... . 
June 14 ... . 
June 15 

Julys 

July 2 

May 6 

Julys 

June 26 ... . 



River above danger line. 



From — 



May 9 



Apr. 27 
July 2 
June 17 



To- 



May 14 



May S 
July 10 
July 3 



Number 
of days. 



12 

9 

17 



THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 



35 



Table XVIII. — Floods and highest waters in the Lower Mississippi — Continued. 
ST. LOUIS, MO.— Continued. 



Year. 



1884 
1SS5 
i885 
1887 
1888 
18S9 
1890 
1891 

1892 

1893 
1894 

1895 
1896 
1897 



Highest 
stage. 



Feet. 
28.8 
27.8 
27.7 
21. 4 
30.1 

25-3 
21. 3 
24.4 
36.7 
31-8 

32-3 
24. I 
17. 8 
28.4 
31-7 



Date. 



Apr. 9, 10 . 
June 17 . . . 
May 13 . . . 
Apr. 3 . . . . 
June 4 . . . . 
June I . . . . 
July I . . . . 
July 4 . . . . 
May 19 . . . 
July 9 . . . . 
May 3 . . . . 
May II... 

July 8 

May 26, 28. 
May 2 



River above danger line. 



From- 



May 12 
July 4 
May I 



May I 



To— 



June 16 
July 15 
May 5 



May 5 



Number 
of days. 



35 
12 

5 



CAIRO, ILL. 




Apr. 19, 20 . 
"FeK 26 .'. .. 
Apr. 12 ... . 

Mar. II 

Apr. 26 ... . 
Mar. 21 ... . 

Aug. 8 

Feb. 5 

Apr. 6,7... 
Apr. 15 ... . 
Apr. 29 ... . 
Dec. 31 ... . 
Jan. 15, 16 . 
Mar. 22. . . . 
"Feb. 25 . . . . 
Apr. 20 ... . 

Feb. 26 

May^3 . . . . 

feb.~27^. ; . ; 

Apr. 15 .. .. 

Feb. 22-24 ■ 

Jan. 26 

Apr. 19 ... . 
Mar. 9, 10. . 

Apr. 4 

June 24 ... . 
Jan. 20, 21 . 
Mar. 12 ... . 
Mar. 3-6 . . . 
Apr. 28 ... . 
Feb. 28 ... . 
May 8, 10. . 
Feb, 16 ... . 
Mar. 25 ... . 
Apr. 13 ... . 
Mar. 25, 28. 



Feb. 22 
Apr. 10 
Feb. 27 
Apr. 16 
Mar. 9 
July 20 
Jan. 29 
Mar. 23 
Apr. 14 



Jan. 12 
Feb. 20 
Feb. 20 
Apr. 14 
Jan. 14 
May 13 
Feb. 14 
Apr. 8 
Feb. ^7 



Apr. 2 
Feb. 7 
Mar. 29 



Jan. 16 
Feb. 13 
Feb. 13 
Apr. 6 
Feb. 20 
Apr. 17 



Feb. 28 



Mar. 2 
Apr. 14 
Mar. 15 
May 13 
Apr. 9 
Aug. 18 
Fell. 24 
May 18 
Apr. 16 



Jan. 19 
Mar. 30 
Mar. 2 
May 12 
Apr. 4 
June II 
Mar. 12 
May 4 
Apr. II 



Apr. 27 
Mar. 22 
Apr. iS 



Jan: 31 
Apr. 14 
Apr. 19 
June 18 
Mar. 4 
June 14 



Apr. 27 



9 

5 

17 



32 ' 

30 

27 

57 
3 



s 
40 

II 

29 
81 

30 
27 
27 

65 



26 

44 
21 



16 
61 
66 

74 

T3 

59 



J 



59 



MEMPHIS, TENN. 



1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 



34-2 
35-2 
36.7 
35-7 
36.8 

34-7 



Apr. 24 ... . 

Mar. 3 

May 2 

Aug. 15-17. 
Apr. 8, 9. . . 
Apr. 29 ... . 



Mar. 9 May 15 
Aug. 14 I Aug. 18 
Mar. 30 Apr. 19 



68 
5 



36 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Tabi,k XVIII. — Floods and highest ivatcys in the Loivcr Mississippi — Continvied. 
MEMPHIS, rma-^.— Continued. 



Year. 



1878 
1879 
18S0 
1881 
r882 
1SS3 
1S84 
1SS5 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 

1890 

1891 
1892 

1S93 
1894 

1895 
1896 
1897 



Highest 
stage. 



Feet. 
31-8 
30. 8 
36.1 
36.0 
37-9 
37-5 
36.9 
31-9 
37-5 
38.0 

36.9 
29-3 
36.0 

38.3 
37-6 
37-3 
37-9 
31-7 

26. 7 

32. I 
39-8 



Date. 



Ma J' 2 

Jan. 29 

Mar. 24-29 

Apr. 27, 28 

Mar. 6-9 

Mar. 6-8 

Mar. 1-3 

Jan. 28 

Apr. 2S 

Mar. 10 

Apr. II, 12 

June 27 

Jan. 27,31 

( Mar. 16, 17, 23-25 

'\ Apr. 4, 5 

Mar. 10 

May 2, 3 

May 15-17 

Feb. 19, 20 

( Jan. 24, 25 ) 
I Mar. 29 ... J 

Apr. 15, 16 

Mar. 19-21 



River above danger line. 



From- 



Mar. 1 8 
Apr. 25 
Jan. 25 
Feb. 21 
Feb. 17 



Apr. 13 
Feb. 16 
Apr. 6 



Jan. 25 



Mar. 5 
Feb. 26 
Apr. 14 
May I 



Mar. 10 



To- 



Mar. 31 
May 2 
Mar. 30 
Mar. 15 
Apr. 9 



Number 
of days. 



May I 
Mar. 26 
Apr. 18 



Feb. 2 



Apr. 19 
Apr. 21 
June 20 
June 16 



May 



14 
8 

65 
23 
53 



^9 
39 
13 



46 

55 
6S 

47 



53 



VICKSBURG, MISS. 



1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 

1877 
187S 

1879 
1880 
i88i 
18S2 
18S3 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1 888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 



45-8 
46.9 
52.0 

49-3 
51.2 
47-9 
47-3 
45.7 
49-5 
48. I 

55.1 
50.1 

55-3 
48.7 
50.5 
51.0 

5°- 
40. 

55- 

54- 

54. . 

48.7 

54-6 

47.2 

38.0 

45.3 
58.6 



May 2,3.. 
May 29, 30 
May 2-5 . . 
Apr. 21. . . 
May 10 . . . 
May 8-13 . 
Mar. 24-27 
Feb. 17 . . . 
Apr. 8, 9... 
Mar. 10, 12 
Mar. 20, 2 1 

Apr. 7 

Mar. 25 . . . 
Feb. 3 . . . . 
May 7-9 . . 
Mar. 26-31 
Apr. 26 . . . 
July 3 . . . . 
Apr. 24, 25. 
Apr. 2-4. . . 
June 2-4 . . 
Mar. 13-15 
May 22, 23 

Apr. 2 

Apr. 4 

Apr. 21.... 
Apr. 16. . . . 



Mar. 14 
Mar. 29 
Feb. 10 
Apr. 29 
Mar. 24 



Mar. II 
Mar. 2 
Jan. 22 
Feb. 24 
Feb. 16 
Jan. 21 
Apr. 18 
Feb. 25 
Apr. 13 



Jan. 30 
Feb. 21 
Apr. 14 
Mar. 8 
May I 



Mar. 16 



June 4 
May 3 
June 13 
May 26 
Mar. 27 



May 3 
May 22 
July 2 
May 17 
June 1 
Feb. 7 
June 4 
Apr. 10 
May 5 



June 4 
May 14 
July 24 
Mar. 21 
July I 



June 3 



83 

36 

125 

28 

4 



54 

82 

162 

83 
107 
18 
48 
45 
23 



126 

83 
102 

14 
62 



80 



CARRODDTON, LA. 



1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



13-9 
14.5 
17.6 
12. 9 

14.3 
12. 7 
12. 9 
12.4 



May 6 

June 3,4 

Apr. 15 

May 3-5, 14, 16, 18 , 

May II 

June 4, 8 

Mar. 21 

Feb. 20, 22 



Mar. 17 



May 18 



THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 



37 



Tabi^E XVIII. — Floods and highest waters in the Loioer Mississippi — Continued. 
CARROLLTON, \,K.— Continued. 



Year. 



1880 

i88i 

1882 

1883 

1S84 

1885 

1886 

1S87 

1888 

18S9 

1890 

1S91 

1892 

1893 j 

1894 

1S95 

1896 

1897 



Highest 


stage 




Feet. 




15- 


8 


14. 


2 


16. 


6 


17- 





17- 


2 


IS- 


2 


IS- 


4 


1 5. 


I 


16. 





13- 


2 


17- 


6 


17- 


6 


18. 


8 


14- 


8 


19- 





15- 





II. 


7 


15- 


3 


20. 


6 



Date. 



24. 



Apr. 23, 

Apr. 12 

Mar. 27 

Apr. 7 

Mar. 18 

Jan. 22, 23 

Ma)' 31 

Apr. 6-9 

Apr. 26 

Mar. 13, 14 ... . 
Mar. 14-17, 22. 

Mar. 16 

June 12, 13 ... . 

Mar. 17 

June 22, 24 ... . 

Apr. 5-7 

Apr. 8 

Apr. 24 

May 7-14 



River above danger line. 



From — 



Mar. 22 



Feb. II 
Mar. 17 
Feb. 24 
Jan. 22 
Apr. 27 
Mar. 9 
Apr. 16 



Feb. 3 
Feb. 20 
Apr. 14 
Mar. 15 
May 7 
Apr. I 



To- 



May 21 



May 12 
June 16 
June 8 
Feb. 14 
June II 
Apr. 19 
May II 



Apr. 19 
Mar. iS 



May 30 
May 19 
July 25 
Mar. 23 
July 14 
Apr. 12 



Apr. 27 
June 13 



Number 
of days. 



61 



91 

92 

106 

24 
46 
42 
26 



117 

89 
103 

9 
69 



9 

88 



60. Frequency and duration of floods. — From the above table we perceive that 011I37 
rarely does the river above Cairo reach a dangerous height, but from Cairo to the Gulf 
the years without flood water are exceptional. At St. Louis we find, in the twenty-six 
years covered, only seven in which the river rose above the danger line ; and the aver- 
age number of daj^s the water remained at the flood height, in these seven floods, was 
fourteen. At Cairo the years of flood number eighteen, with an average duration of 
flood of fifty-four days ; at Memphis we find sixteen flood years, with an average length 
of flood of thirty-seven days ; at Vicksburg, floods, averaging seventy-two days in length, 
have occurred in nineteen years ; at Carrollton the flood years are sixteen in number, and 
the average duration of flood sixty-five days. As to the season in which floods occur, 
we find the earliest date on which the river has been above danger line to be : at St. Ivouis, 
April 27 ; at Cairo, January 12 ; at Memphis, January 25 ; at Vicksburg, January 21 ; 
and at Carrollton, January 22. The latest date to which the flood has continued is : at 
St. Ivouis, July 15 ; at Cairo, August 18 ; at Memphis, August iS ; at Vicksburg, July 
24 ; and at Carrollton, July 25. In the past twenty-six years, therefore, there has been 
no flood water in any portion of the Lower Mississippi between August 18 and Janu- 
ary 12. 

61. Chief floods of the past quarter-century. — The loss incident to a flood depends 
not alone on the great height reached by the water, but also on the duration of the 
dangerous stage. Measured by its destru6live chara6ler, the fii^st notable flood since 
1870 was that of 1874. In that year the river did not reach the height of the 1858 
flood at Cairo, but almost attained it at Memphis, and exceeded it at Helena b^^ a foot ; 
at Vicksburg and Natchez the flood was lower hy about 3 feet than in 1858, but south 
of the Red river it was higher by more than a foot. 

In 1882 a great flood occurred, the water at Cairo, Memphis, and Helena reaching 
the highest point recorded up to that time. At Vicksburg and Natchez, the river 



38 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

closely approached the stage of 1S5S, but fell short of that of 1S62. The record of 
1S58 was exceeded by 1.3 foot at Baton Rouge, and equaled at Carrollton. The river 
remained in flood at Cairo for eighty-one days, and at Vicksburg for one hundred and 
sixty-two days, the longest flood period recorded at either station. 

The flood of 1883 was notable only for the great and sudden rise at Cairo to the 
highest stage ever recorded at that point. At Memphis and Vicksburg, the water did 
not reach an extreme stage, nor was the flood of unusual duration. The stage at 
Carrollton exceeded that of the previous j'ear, and the flood was of equal length. 

In 1884 about the same stages were reached as in 1882, but the flood was of much 
shorter duration at Vicksburg and above. At Carrollton the height of the rh'ev 
exceeded that of 1882 by 0.6 foot, and the flood lasted one hundred and six days. In 
this year the highest water ever known occurred in the Ohio. 

The next five years were marked by moderate waters and freedom from serious 
flood damage. In 1890 another notable flood occurred in the lower river, but was not 
of marked severity above Memphis. 

In 1892 and 1893 there were moderate floods, differing from those previousU' noted 
in occurring much later in the year. They ma}- be termed summer rather than spring 
floods. In 1893 the highest water up to that time was reached at Helena, Baton 
Rouge, and Carrollton. 

In the spring of 1897, a great flood occurred, although not of extreme duration. 
The river nearly reached the stage of 1883 at Cairo, and from Memphis to its mouth 
rose to a height greater than ever before recorded. The flood exceeded that of 185S 
by 2.0 feet at Cairo, 2.8 at Memphis, 7.2 at Helena, 3.4 at Vicksburg, 2.8 at Natchez, 
5.9 at Baton Rouge, and 4.0 at Carrollton. 

STUDY OF RECENT FLOODS. 

62. Six floods seleEied for study. — Of the floods of the last twenty-six years, those 
of 1882, 1890, and 1897 are readily distinguishable as the most serious and destructive. 
These floods, together with that of 1883, in which the maximum height of water was 
reached at the head of the alluvial plain; that of 1884, during which the Ohio was in 
greatest flood; and that of 1893, as a type of summer flood, have been subje6led to 
analysis. In determining the sources of a flood in the Lower Mississippi, we will study 
the gauge records at certain points, so selected as to indicate the contributions of all 
the chief tributaries, whence a flood may come. The waters from the great Missouri 
basin and that of the Upper Mississippi must pass St. Louis, and hence the stage at 
that point will serve as an index to flood waters out of those basins. The stages at 
Cincinnati and Johnsonville will sufficiently gauge the waters of the Ohio basin ; a flood 
from the Arkansas will be shown on the gauge at Little Rock, and one from the Red 
on the vShreveport gauge. On the Lower Mississippi itself, the combined effedl of the 
waters from the Ohio, Upper Mississippi, and Missouri is shown at Cairo ; at Memphis 
the same water appears, less that passing into the St. Francis bottom ; at Vicksburg, 
there has been added the drainage from the St. Francis, White, Arkansas, and Yazoo ; 
and at New Orleans the last tributary, the Red, and the effluent bayous have been 
passed. For the stations enumerated, hydrographs have been constru6led from the 
daily gauge readings, for each of the six floods. These cover, in each flood, a period of 
four months, embracing the rise, culmination, and decline of the flood. For the first 



THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 



39 



three months of each period covered by the hydrographs, charts of the a6tual monthly 
precipitation have been drawn. It is found that, in each flood, the excessive precipita- 
tation, to which the flood was due, occurred within a period of two months, and a chart 
of the departure from the normal precipitation is given for each of these months, 
together wath a chart showing the total departure in the two months. There are thus 
six rainfall charts and a sheet of hydrographs for each of the six seledled floods. 

63. Precipitation in the six floods. — By a process similar to that followed in deter- 
mining the normal precipitation over the various basins, the nionthl}'- precipitation 
during each flood, over the six grand divisions of the Mississippi drainage basin, has 
been computed, and is presented in the following table : 



Table XIX. — Precipitation in six floods. 

OHIO BASIN. 



Subdivisions. 


18S2. 


1883. 


18S4. 


1890. 


1893. 




1SQ7. 




Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May 


June 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


\ 


5-6 

4..-i 
3-8 
11. 1 
12.0 

7-2 


+.0 
4.4 
5-7 

8.2 

6.9 
7-7 

6.9 

6-3 


4-7 
3-9 
4.3 
6.6 
4.6 
7.0 
5-7 

5-1 


3-0 

3-0 
3-1 
30 
2.1 
4.1 
5-9 

3-6 


5-8 
4.9 
7-6 
7-9 
7.6 
6.8 
4.8 

6-3 


2.2 
3-2 
3-4 
3-3 
2.2 

3-4 
3-5 

3-1 


3-8 
3-7 

\x 

5-2 
5-1 

3-9 


5-6 
5-7 

8.0 

7.6 
7-5 

7.0 


4-4 

!:i 

3-9 
3.7 
7-5 

8.S 

6.7 


4-4 
3-6 
4.8 
5-9 

6.2 
4-4 

5.0 


4.8 
5-7 

7.8 
5-2 
0. "^ 
8.1 

6.9 


t1 

5-6 
6.0 


b.2 

6.9 
7-5 
5-9 
4.4 


S-6 
5-5 

6.0 
4.6 
6.7 
6.7 

5-7 


2.S 
3-6 
4.6 
5-3 
4-7 
5-5 
5-1 

4.6 


2-5 

1-5 
2-3 

i-6 

3-2 
3-2 

2.8 


4-0 
6.2 
6.4 
4-8 
2.8 
4-7 
5-5 

5.0 


3-8 
3-9 
6 6 


B 


C 


D ; 


7-9 
.•i-9 
8.0 
8 6 


E 


F 

G 




6 6 







0PPBE MISSISSIPPI BASIN. 



A. 
B. 
C . 
D. 



: 1-9 

Entire basin , i.o 



1-3 
1-5 
1-5 
4.1 



2.4 
3-4 
3.0 
3-9 



0.9 
1,4 
1-3 
1.4 



0.7 
2.6 
3-3 
5-3 



0-3 
0.5 
0.9 



0-5 
0.9 
0.6 
0.9 



1-5 
1-7 
1-5 
2.6 



0.6 0.7 1.7 2.2 



2.4 

2.8 



o.g- 
2.1 
2.0 
4.6 

2. 1 



0.6 

1-3 
1.0 
2.4 



0.8 
1-9 
1.8 
3-5 

l.S 



3-8 
4-5 
5-4 
6.0 



2-5 
2.6 
3-9 
3-6 



4-8 ; 3-1 



2.1 

4.8 
4.8 
3-7 

3-7 



1-9 
2.9 
3-1 
4-7 

2-9 



1.2 

1-3 
1.0 
1-9 



1.8 
2.7 

2-7 
4.6 



MISSOURI BASIN. 



A. 
B. 



D. 

E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 



Entire basin . 



0.4 


0.3 


0.7 


1.4 


0.5 


O.q 


0.7 


0.5 


0.4 


0.4 


o..'; 


0.6 


:.o 


2-7 


1-4 


0.6 


0.9 


0.4 


0.2 


0.4 


1-4 


0.4 


0.9 


0.4 


0.4 


0.9 


o.S 


0.6 


0.9 


1.4 


2.4 


I.I 


0.6 


0.8 


0.2 


0.2 


0.8 


1-7 


0-5 


1-5 


0.3 


0.4 


1.0 


0.5 


0.3 


I.I 


1.5 


2.7 


2.6 


1.0 


0.8 


0. r 


0.1 


0.4 


1.4 


0-5 


1.4 


0.5 


0.8 


1.4 


0.7 


0.6 


1-3 


3-8 


2.6 


2.6 


1.4 


0.4 


0.5 


0.4 


i.r 


0.5 


0.7 


0.6 


0.4 


1.2 


1.8 


o.S 


0.4 


1.0 


3-3 


2.1 


3-9 


1.6 


0.9 


0.4 


0.2 


0.2 


1.3 


0.9 


0.5 


0-5 


0.7 


2.0 


0.6 


0.4 


0.6 


1.4 


2-5 


2.2 


0.5 


0.6 


0.4 


0.3 


0.1 


0.6 


I.I 


0.4 


0.2 


0.9 


1-7 


0.9 


0.3 


0-3 


0.3 


T.8 


2.3 


1.2 


1-3 


0.9 


3-4 


2.3 


1-5 


3-5 


1.6 


I.I 


2.6 


3-2 


4-3 


1.8 


3-1 


6-3 


5-3 


5-0 


4.2 


1-7 


0.4 


0-5 


0.7 


1-3 


0.9 


1.2 


0-5 


0.8 


1-5 


1.0 


0.6 


1.0 


2.0 


2-7 


2-5 


1.2 


0.9 



1.6 

1-7 
1-4 

2. I 

1-5 
1.2 
1-3 
4-3 











ARKANSAS 


BASIN. 


















0.7 


0.2 


0.6 


0.4 


1.4 


0.6 


0.4 


1.0 


1.4 


1.0 


0.5 


0-3 


1-7 


2.0 


1.7 


l.l 


1-3 


0.7 


0.9 


0.9 


0.3 


1.6 


0.7 


0.4 


0.7 


1.2 


1-5 


0.8 


0.9 


1.2 


2.2 


1.4 


2.2 


1.0 


1.8 


3-7 


2.3 


1.0 


3.1 


1.2 


0-5 


3-1 


1.4 


3-6 


1-9 


2.6 


4.2 


.'i.2 


3-9 


4-6 


1.2 


6.7 


8.9 


4.9 


3-3 


6.2 


2.9 


2.8 


9-7 


4-5 


S.2 


6-5 


b.9 


8.7 


9-8 


5-4 


7-2 


3-0 


2.2 


2.9 


1-9 


I.I 


2.8 


1.2 


1.0 


3.2 


2.2 


3-1 


2.2 


2-3 


3-5 


4-3 


2.8 


3-3 


1.6 



A. 
B . 



Entire basin . 



2.0 
2.6 
4-5 
9-3 



RED BASIN. 



A. 
B. 



0.6 

S.8 



Entire basin 4.6 



1.0 
8.0 



1.0 

4.8 



0.2 

5-5 



1-4 
6.8 



1-7 
4.4 



4.4 2.9 , 2.8 I 4.0 I 3.0 I 



0.4 
5-4 



0.4 
7-3 



1-8 
5-9 

3-8 



2.0 
7.0 



0.2 

5-4 



4-4 1 2.8 



0.2 

4.6 



0.3 
4-5 



9.6 
6.1 



1-3 
6.0 



1-7 
7.0 



0-5 
1-5 



i.S 

7-4 



CENTRAL VALLEY. 



A. 
B. 
C . 
D. 

E. 
F. 



Entire basin . 



4.1 
9.0 
9.6 
13.0 
12.7 
4.0 



9.0 : 

10. I 

10. o 
8.6 ; 

6.1 I 
4-6 I 



4.4 
6.2 
6.6 

7-4 
6.7! 

1.4 ! 



1.6 

3-5 
3-7 
6.2 
9.0 
12.0 



8.2 8.2 5.3 ; 5.7 



6.8 
7.8 
8.4 
6-5 
5-4 
2.6 

5-2 



1-4 1 

3-9 

4.0 

6.5^ 

7-6 ! 

7.2 

4.8 



'i-4 


3-1 


7.2 


4.6 


6.0 


9.9 


5-4 


5.2 


4.8 


2.8 


9.2 


.■i.6 


S.o 


7.6 


7-1 


6.1 


8.8 


8.1 


5.1 


4.4 


7.6 


4-6 


7-4 


7.8 


7.0 


6.2 


10. 


5.5 


4.2 


4.6 


9.6 


7.8 


6.9 


7.9 


6..'i 


5-4 


II. 5 


4-5 


5-3 


4.4 


7-3 


8.8 


3-0 


6.7 


6.2 


2.9 


9-5 


.5-6 


.5-0 


4.2 


2.4 


9.2 


1.2 


3-0 


2.4 


6.8 


2.7 


7.0 


3-4 


5-0 


6.8 


6.3 


5-8 


5-1 


6.8 


6.6 


7-S 


6.0 


4-7 


4.2 



7.2 

9.6 

8.8 
9-4 
6.3 
5-3 

7.8 



40 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



64. Downfall' in the six floods. — A knowledge of the discharges from the com- 
ponent basins and that of the Mississippi itself, during these floods, is greatly to be 
desired, but such information is not to be had in any completeness. We can, however, 
from the data of Table XIX, compute the downfall over the various watersheds, and thus 
obtain some idea of the sources of the different floods. In the following table the 
departure of the downfall from its normal value is given for the six grand divisions of 
the entire basin. 

Tabi,E XX. — Departure from normal downfall in six floods. 
[Unit of 10,000,000 cubic yards.] 



River basin. 



Jan. 



Feb. 



Mar. 



Three 
months. 



Jan. 



Feb. 



Mar. 



Three 
months. 



1884. . 



Jan. 



Feb. 



Mar. 



Tliree 
months. 



Ohio 

Upper Mississippi 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Eed 

Central Valley... 



+5,9"! 
— 570 
—1,361 
+ 962 
+1,316 
— 2, 196 



+4.339 
+ 714 
— 907 
+1,764 
+1.239 
+2,195 



+1,1909 

+1,712 

—1,814 

— 160 

— 155 
+ 179 



+12,149 

+ 1,856 

— 4,,oS2 

+ 2,566 

+ 2,400 
+ 4. 57I'. 



— 347 

— 285 
+2,722 

— 802 

+ 712 



+4. 339 
+1,713 
+ 907 
—1,603 
+ 930 
+ 415 



—1,561 
— 1,614 
+ 454 
—I, 282 
- 78 
^ 593 



+2, 431 
— 186 
+4.083 



+ 



+ 173 

— 999 

— 907 

— 962 

— 78 
+ 178 



+5.554 
+ 429 
+ 462 
+2,245 
+ 775 
+1,365 



--4,686 
- - 570 

--i;8i5 
-- :^2o 

-- 542 
+ 772 



+10.413 

+ 1.370 
+ 1,603 
+ 1,239 
+ 2,315 



l8go. 



River basin. 



Jan. 



+2,083 
-t-r, 000 
+1,361 
+2, 404 
+1,161 
Central Valley I -f 771 



Ohio 

Upper Mississippi 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Red 



Feb. 



+5.380 
— 285 



+ 



434 
642 



+ .35' 



Mar, 



+3.471 



453 
481 
, 542 
+1, 059 



+ 



Three 
months. 



+10.934 
+ 715 
+ 454 
+ 3, 527 
+ 619 
+ 2. 196 



1893- 



April. 



+3.124 
+2.855 
— 453 
+ 802 
— I, 162 
+ 950 



May. 



+2, 950 
- 857 
—1,361 
+ 802 
+1,162 
+ 1,959 



June. 



+ 694 

— 999 
—3.176 

— 962 

— 77 
+ 772 



Three 
months. 



+6, 7S8 
+ 999 
—4. 990 
+ 642 
— 77 
+3.6S1 



1S97. 



Jan. 



—1.736 
+2, 142 
+2, 268 
+2,725 
+1, 084 
+ 118 



Feb. 



+2,083 

— 142 
+ 907 

— 320 
—I, .394 

— 178 



+4,512 

--1,284 

■4.990 

■3. 517 

■1,084 

+1.673 



Three 
months. 



+ 4,859 
+ 3. 284 
+ 8, 165 
+ 5,9^2 
+ 774 
+ 1,013 



FLOOD OF 1882.. 

65. Its tiuo szvells. — From an inspe6lion of the hydrographs for the flood of 1882, 
as shown on Plate XXIII, it is seen that this flood rose at Cairo in two swells, the first 
culminating on February 3, at a height of 7.6 feet above danger line, and the second on 
February 26, at 11. 9 feet, the river remaining above danger line for eight3-one days. 
Both swells came chiefly from the Ohio, although the second was slightly increased by 
the rise shown in the Mississippi at St. Louis. At Memphis the river was in flood from 
January 25 to March 30, a period of sixty-five days, but only reached a height of 2.2 feet 
above danger line. At Vicksburg and New Orleans the river rose slowl}^ from the 
beginning of the year, reaching the danger line at Vicksburg on January 22, and at New 
Orleans on February 11.* The river was in flood at the latter point for ninety-one days, 
to May 12; at Vicksburg the river remained above danger line for one hundred and 
sixty-two da5'S, to July 2. There was a small flood in the Arkansas during the latter 
part of February, and a great swell in the Red from the middle of January to the mid- 
dle of April. 

66. The, downfall which caused it. — The precipitation which caused this flood is 
shown on the monthly precipitation charts, Plates XVII to XIX, and its average 
amount over the various watersheds has been computed in Table XIX. It is seen that 
in January the precipitation is heavy in the Ohio basin, the Central Vallej^, and the 
lower sedlions of the Arkansas and Red basins. In February heavy rainfall continued 
in these seAions, becoming still heavier in the lower Arkansas basin, and extended to 

* Danger line at New Orleans is taken at 13.5 feet, although danger to the city itself does not begin until a stage of 
16 feet is reached. 



THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 41 

the southern portions of the Upper Mississippi basin, and a small part of the Missouri 
basin. In March similar conditions held, with a further increase of rainfall in the 
Upper Mississippi basin. There is seen, from Table XX, to be a large excess in the 
downfall over the Ohio basin and Central Valley during Januarj' and Februar}', and a 
smaller excess in March. The downfall in the Arkansas and Red basins was also above 
the normal in January and February, but slightlj^ deficient in March. In the Missouri 
basin there was a deficient downfall in each of the three months ; in the Upper Mis- 
sissippi basin the downfall somewhat exceeded the normal in February and March. 
This distribution of the flood rain is illustrated in the departure charts. Plates XX to 
XXII. 

67. Origin of the flood. — The genesis of this flood is, therefore, as follows : The 
Lower Mississippi was at a moderately high stage at the opening of the year, the gauge 
reading beirife_ 9.2 feet above the normal at St. Louis, 21.2 feet at Cairo, 16.7 at Mem- 
phis, 18.4 at Vicksburg, and 4.8 at Carrollton. For the first ten days of January the 
river at St. Louis, Cairo, and Memphis was falling slowly, but, from the effe^ of rains 
in the basiijs of the St. Francis, White, and Yazoo, it was rising steadily at Vicksburg 
and points below. Upon the river, already well filled, was precipitated the first Ohio 
flood in January. The Tennessee was already rising at the beginning of the month, ■ 
and the upper Ohio began to rise on the 6th. The flood reached Cairo on the loth, and 
the river rose during the remainder of the month. The Ohio fell from the first of Feb- 
ruary, and the river at Cairo followed more slowly, but was still 3 feet above the danger 
line when a second flood came out of the Ohio. This rise came from the upper Ohio, 
as the Tennessee continued to fall throughout the month. The Ohio rose rapidl}^ at 
Cincinnati from February 7 to 21. At the same time there was a sharp, but short, rise 
in the Mississippi at St. Louis. During the first swell of this flood the INIississippi, 
above the mouth of the Ohio, was slowl}^ falling, and during the second swell was low, 
except for the slight rise at the end of Februar3\ The only effedl of this was to make 
the rise at Cairo a little more sharp and high. It is clear that the flood of 1882 arose 
from heavy precipitation in the Ohio basin and the distridls adjacent to the Mississippi 
below Cairo. 

FLOOD OF 1883. 

68. Its single great rise. — The hydrographs of this flood, Plate XXX, show the 
Lower Mississippi at its normal level at the beginning of January. The rise, which 
should have been in progress, under normal conditions, did not set in until the latter 
part of the month. From the 17th the river at Cairo rose in a great swell, attaining 
on February 27 the highest stage ever recorded. The decline during March was rapid 
to a stage 10 feet below the normal on the 26th. A second but much smaller swell 
immediatel}^ set in, reaching its maximum the middle of April. Both these rises came 
from Ohio floods ; the first was aided by a rise in the Mississippi above Cairo, but the 
St. Louis hydrograph shows a stationary river during the second. At Memphis the 
river stages followed closely those at Cairo, but the maximum height attained during the 
first swell was only 1.8 foot above danger line, and the river remained in flood but 
twenty-three days; the danger line was not reached during the second swell. A small 
swell occurred in the Arkansas at the same time as the first at Cairo, and its decline 
coincided with that at Cairo. At Vicksburg the river rose in a single swell from 

6 MISS 



42 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

January 20, reaclimg danger line on February 24, and remaining in flood to Ma}- 17; 
at its maximum the stage was 2.8 feet above danger line. At New Orleans, also, there 
was a single swell, reaching its crest on April 7. 

69. The accompanying precipitation. — The downfall of water during Januar}', as 
shown in Tables XIX and XX, was deficient in all the basins except those of the Mis- 
souri and the Central Valley. In February there was a large excess in the Ohio basin, 
and smaller excesses in the other basins. In March the downfall was somewhat defi- 
cient except in the Missouri basin. These facts are further illustrated by the precipi- 
tation and departure charts, Plates XXIV to XXIX. 

This is a type of a purely Ohio flood. A great flood out of the Ohio descended, in 
this case, upon a low river. The resultant flood is short in duration at Memphis. A 
second and much smaller flood, following from the Ohio, produced a second rise at 
Memphis, but at Vicksburg formed a continuation of the earlier swell. The prolonga- 
tion of the latter at this point would seem to have been due to slow drainage through 
the St. Francis and Yazoo bottoms. 

FLOOD OF 1884. 

70. Its main features. — In this j^ear occurred the memorable flood of the upper 
Ohio, in which the river at Cincinnati rose 69.2 feet above lowest water. At St. Touis 
the Mississippi remained at a nearly uniform low level from the beginning of the year 
to the middle of March, when a moderate swell began. The great flood wave in the 
Ohio, as shown by the Cincinnati hydrograph, Plate XXXVII, began on Januar}^ 29, 
reaching its crest on February 14, and declining rapidly to March 6. This flood was 
immediately followed by a second of much less magnitude. The Mississippi, at Cairo, 
rose in two swells, the first beginning on Februar}? i, reaching its crest at 11.8 feet 
above the danger line on the 2 2d. There was then a fall of about 16 feet to March 11, 
followed by a second and smaller swell, which reached its height on April 7 at 8.8 feet 
above danger line. Negledling the few days between the two swells, when the river 
fell a little below the danger line, the river was in flood sixty-five da3^s. At Memphis 
the two swells were evident, but much less marked than at Cairo ; the flood reached 
a height of 1.2 foot above danger line, and its duration was fifty-three days. At Vicks- 
burg the flood rose in one swell, somewhat accentuated at the time of its crest by the 
second rise. The river reached a height of 8.0 feet above danger line, and remained in 
flood one hundred and seven days. The single, long swell at New Orleans rose 2.7 
feet above danger line, and the river was in flood one hundred and seven da3's. 

71. Distribution of rainfall. — The precipitation of this flood is shown on Plates 
XXXI to XXXIII, and its departure from the normal on Plates XXXIV to XXXVI ; 
its amount in the various river basins is given in Table XIX, and the resultant down- 
fall in Table XX. In January the precipitation is seen to be above normal in the 
upper Ohio and Tennessee basins and the lower portion of the Central Valley. 
During February the downfall is very heavy in the Ohio basin, and exceeds the normal 
in all basins. In March the downfall is again largely in excess of the normal in the 
Ohio basin, and there is an increased downfall in the lower Missouri basin. 

This flood was closely analogous to that of 1882. Each was caused by two flood 
waves from the Ohio, but in the former one the second wave was the greater, while 
in this the first was the more important. The duration of the flood of 1882 was much 



THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 43 

longer. The first flood out of the Ohio descended, in the flood of 1SS2, upon a much 
higher river than in 1884. The latter flood, like the two previous ones, came essentiallj^ 
out of the Ohio, the second swell being somewhat increased by a rise in the Missis- 
sippi above Cairo. Short floods also came out of the Arkansas and Red rivers. 

FLOOD OF 1S90. 

72. The rise in three sivells. — The hydrographs of Plate XLIV show the Missis- 
sippi above Cairo to have remained at a low stage throughout the period covered. At 
Cairo the river rose in a short swell in January, reaching a height of 3.7 feet above 
danger line on the 2 ist ; by February 8 it had fallen to a stage of 7 feet below danger line. 
A second small swell occurred in February. Toward the end of February the river 
again began to rise, and remained above the danger line from February 13 to April 14. 
The same three flood waves are seen at Memphis, where the river was in flood fifty-five 
days, and the water reached a height of 2.6 feet above danger line. At Vicksburg and 
New Orleans there is a single, grand swell, the rise at Vicksburg beginning on Janu- 
ary 7, and culminating on April 26 at a stage S.o feet above danger line ; at New 
Orleans the river also rose from January 9 and reached a stage 3.7 feet above 
danger line. In the Ohio there were three distinct rises, the first occurring in Januar}^ 
and culminating in a stage i.o foot below danger line at Cincinnati; the second rise, in 
February, reached a height of 12.0 feet above danger line on March i ; the third rise 
began on March 11 and reached a stage 14.4 feet above danger line on March 26. No 
flood occurred in the Arkansas this year. 

73.. Origin of the flood. — The precipitation and departui^e charts. Plates XXXVIII 
to XLIII, show the heaviest downpour to have occurred over the Ohio basin. There 
was also heavy rainfall in the Central Valley and the basin of the White river. These 
facts appear in detail in Table XIX. The excess of downfall is shown, in Table XX, 
to have been wholly supplied from these sources, and here we again find a flood 
occasioned by water from the Ohio and the alluvial basins along the Mississippi below 
Cairo. The Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers play no part in the development of 
the flood. 

FLOOD OF 1893. 

74. A summer flood. — The hydrographs of Plate LI show a flood of somewhat 
different character and origin. The river at Vicksburg, after a slight spring flood of 
little moment, had fallen on April 17 to a stage 10 feet below its normal level for that 
date. It then began to rise rapidly, reaching the danger line on May i, attaining a 
height of 7.3 feet above danger line on May 22, and remaining above danger line to 
July I. At Cairo the rise began on April 11, reaching the danger line on the 17th, 
and its maximum height of 9.3 feet above danger line on May 8. This rise was 
succeeded by a rapid fall to the 26th, when a second small rise set in. From June 12 
the river fell rapidly. The two swells are apparent at Memphis, where the flood rose 
to a stage 2.2 feet above danger line. A rise began in the Ohio, at Cincinnati, on April 
6, and in the Mississippi, at St. Louis, on the loth. At the former point the river rose 
to a stage of 5.9 feet above danger line bj' May 7, and at St. Louis the Mississippi 
reached a stage 1.6 foot above danger line on May 3. 

75. The cause of it. — From the precipitation and departure charts, Plates XLV to 



44 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

L, as also from the data of Table XIX, we see that the rainfall to which this flood is 
due fell, in April, over the Ohio and Upper Mississippi basins, the lowest sedlion of the 
Missouri basin, and the upper distriAs of the Central Valley ; in May the rainfall was 
above the normal over most of the Ohio basin, the southernmost part of the Upper 
Mississippi basin, and southward over the districts adjacent to the Mississippi. In 
June the downfall was rather below the normal over the entire Mississippi drainage 
basin. We find this flood to have arisen from the combined adlion of moderate floods 
out of both the Ohio and Upper Mississippi basins, aided by a heavy downpour over 
the Central Valley and White river basin. 

FLOOD OF 1 89 7. 

76. Its chief features. — In the flood of last spring, as shown by the hydrographs 
of Plate LVIII, the river rose in one long swell at all stations from St. lyouis to the 
gulf of Mexico. At St. Louis the rise began on February 2, and was slow, continuing, 
with minor oscillations, to May 2, when a stage i.o foot above danger line had been 
reached. At Cairo the rise commenced on February 4 ; it was checked by a slight fall 
from February 16 to 22; after which it continued to a maximum of 11. 6 feet above 
danger line on March 25. The subsequent fall was slow to April 16, and afterward 
became rapid. The river was at flood height for a period of fifty-nine days. The 
course of the flood at Memphis was altogether similar to that at Cairo. The rise, com- 
mencing on February 7, was checked by a slight fall from the 19th to 24th, and then 
continued to a maximum stage of 4.1 feet above danger line on March 19. The fall 
from the latter date to the end of April was only 3 feet, then becoming more rapid. 
The rise at Vicksburg began on February 12, and the river came to a stand during the 
latter days of the month. From March i the rise was steady until the crest was 
reached at a stage of 11. 3 feet above danger line on April 16. The rise at New Orleans 
was continuous from February 15 to May 13, when a stage of 6.1 feet above danger 
line was reached. A sharp rise occurred in the Ohio at Cincinnati from February 3 to 
II, followed b}^ a fall to the 20th. A still more rapid rise then set in, lasting to the 
26th, when the river was 16.4 feet above danger line. This flood from the upper Ohio 
was followed by a great rise in the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers during March. 

jj. The rainfall and probable drainage. — From the precipitation and departure 
charts. Plates LII to LVII, it is seen that the downpour of this flood fell much short 
of that in the notable flood of 18S2. In January there was abundant precipitation in 
the lower Missouri and Arkansas basins and the Central Valley, which filled the bot- 
toms, and brought the Mississippi to its normal winter height. In February' a rainfall, 
not of excessive amount, but falling within a short time, occurred in the Ohio basin, 
and inaugurated the flood. In March still heavier rainfall in the Ohio basin, and 
especially on the Cumberland and Tennessee watersheds, maintained the lower Ohio 
in flood. This was supplemented by a slow rise from the Mississippi above Cairo, 
caused by moderate rains in the lower sedlions of the Missouri and Upper Mississippi 
basins. At the same time heavy rainfall occurred in the Central Valley and the lower 
Arkansas basin. The departure of downfall in the Ohio basin, from its normal value, 
is seen trom Table XX to be much less than half its amount in 1882, and yet the 
Ohio flood is fully the equal to that of 1882. This must be explained by the rapidity 
of the fall of water, a short and rapid rain supplying an immediate flood drainage equal 



THE RIVER IN FLOOD. 



45 



to that of a much greater raiu at a slow rate of fall. The downfall in the Missouri 
basin is very greatl}' in excess of that in 1SS2, but is chiefly due to a very moderate 
rainfall over the great, dry plains which form the major part of its area. A comparison 
of the St. Louis hydrographs for the two ^^ears does not indicate that the Missouri dis- 
charge was increased to a degree corresponding to the stated increase of downfall. 

78. Source of the flood. — The genesis of this flood appears to be as follows: The 
Lower Mississippi in the early part of February was at a low stage. Upon it was 
poured, during Februar}^, a great flood from the Ohio. At the same time the alluvial 
bottoms were filled by heavy rainfall. The river was brought to full flood by the 
middle of March. It was then maintained in flood chiefly b}- heavy rainfall over the 
Central Valley and lower Arkansas basin, somewhat aided by higher water in the Mis- 
sissippi itself above Cairo. 

COMPARISON AND CAUSE OF FLOODS. 

79. Relative iviportcince oj these six floods. — In the following small table are shown 
the heights above the local danger lines reached in these six floods at several typical 
points : 

Table XXI. — Heiglits of six floods, stages referred to local danger line. 



Station. 


1882. 


1883. 

+ 4.8 

+12. 2 

+ I.S 

+ 2.8 

+ 2.8 


1884. 


1890. 


1893- 


1897. 


fit TjOuis TVlo . . . 


+ 2. 2 
+11.9 
+ 2. 2 
+ 7.8 
+ 2.3 


— 1.9 

+ 11. 8 
+ 1.2 
+ 8.0 
+ 2.7 


— 9.4 
+ 8.8 
+ 2.6 
+ 8.0 

+ 3-2 


+ 1.6 

+ 9.3 
+ 2.2 

+ 7-3 
+ 4.2 


+ 1.0 
+ 11. 6 
4- 4.1 
+ 11.3 
+ 6.0 


Cairo 111 




Virksburcr Miss . ... 







It is difficult to decide the relative severity of these floods from the available 
records. This would be properly measured by the extent and depth of the overflow 
upon lands adjacent to the river, and these depend not only upon the stages reached on 
the river gauges, but also on the duration of high water. Below Cairo the highest 
river ever known occurred during the flood of 1897, but, in the duration of high water, 
the floods of 1882 and 1884 exceed that of 1897. The two great floods of 1882 and 
1897 differ somewhat in character; the flood of 1882 was longest in total duration, but 
that of 1897 had greater duration of extremely high water. This is seen in the follow- 
ing comparative statement of the duration of various stages at the head of the alluvial 
plain at Cairo : 



Stage of river. 



River above danger line 

Two feet or more above danger line . 
Four feet or more above danger line . 
Six feet or more above danger line . . 
Eight feet or more above danger line 
Ten feet or more above danger line. . 



18S2. 



"fa vs. 


Davs 


Si 


59 


6S 


56 


63 


51 


47 


47 


15 


42 


9 


19 



IS97. 



It is seen that the earlier flood holds the lead until a stage of 6 feet above danger 
line is reached, but at higher stages, the later one has much the longer duration. A 



46 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

more detailed account of the flood of 1897 will be given in Section IV, based upon 
the reports of Weather Bureau officials, who were present on the ground. 

So. Cause of Mississippi floods. — It is, of course, conceivable that a flood should 
occur in the Lower Mississippi from heavy precipitation over any of the great contrib- 
utary basins. In these floods of the past quarter-century, we do not, however, find the 
western tributaries playing an important part. The great source of floods is the Ohio 
basin, with its steep slopes from the crest of the Alleghanies, upon which fall the 
heaviest rains of spring, at a time when the normal rise of the Lower Mississippi 
brings the river almost to the danger line from Cairo to the Gulf. In the greatest 
floods, we also find that heavy rainfall over the great swamp region that extends along 
the Mississippi from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf of Mexico, is an important 
fadlor. Thii'd in importance, as a fadlor in producing floods, is the Upper Mississippi, 
which, while never discharging a volume suflicient to produce of itself a flood, yet, 
rising later than the Ohio, serves to prolong the high water, and thus to increase the 
overflow. 














<^, « 



i>. f 







T3 
O 
O 



3 



p. 



o 



SECTION IV. 

SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 

Special reports on this year's flood. — Extent of the overflow. — Losses by the flood. — Work of the Weather Bureau. — 
Flood in the Ohio river : Sources to Wheeling, W. Va. — Wheeling to Point Pleasant, W. Va. — Point Pleasant to 
Lavs'renceburg, Ind. — I,awrenceburg to Mount Vernon, Ind. — Mount Vernon to the mouth. — Tennessee river. — 
Flood in the Upper Mississippi river r Sources to Reeds Landing, Minn. — Reeds Landing to North McGregor, 
Iowa. — North McGregor to Clinton, Iowa. — Clinton to Burlington, Iowa. — Burlington to Quinc}', 111. — Ouincy to 
Louisiana, Mo. — Louisiana to the moiith of the Missouri river. — Flood in the Missouri river : Sources to Fort 
Yates, N. Dak. — Fort Yates to Chamberlain, S. Dak. — Chamberlain to Vermilion, S. Dak. — Vermilion to the 
Little Sioux river. — Little Sioux river to Atchison, Kans. — Atchison to the mouth. — Flood in the Arkansas river : 
Sources to Dodge City, Kans. — Dodge City to the southern border of Kansas. — Southern border of Kansas to Dar- 
danelle. Ark. — Dardanelle to the mouth. — Flood in the Red river. — Flood in the Lower Mississippi river : St. 
Louis, Mo., to Chester, 111.— Chester to New Madrid, Mo.— New Madrid to Helena, Ark.— Effecft of the St. Francis 
levee. — Helena to Vicksburg, Miss. — Vicksburg to the mouth. 

DETAILED accounts of the spring flood of this year by officials of the 
Weather Bureau, who were on the ground, will be presented in the follow- 
"ing pages. Early in April, when it became apparent that the flood would 
prove one of exceptional severity, those officials were dire6led to colledl information 
in regard to it, and, at its conclusion, to render a report. To each of the various 
officials engaged in river work, was assigned a seAion of river upon which to report. 
This method was applied not only to the Mississippi itself, but also to the main tribu- 
taries, and in this seftion will be found the various reports — some perfundlory, and some 
carefully prepared and highly interesting. 

It is doubtless impossible to obtain, from a written description, a full realization of 
the horrors of such a visitation as this great flood. The days of anxiety and nights 
of fear, before the dreaded waters begin to rise ; the wearisome struggle to hold the 
protedling levee ; the final hardship, when the flood has triumphed and only flight 
remains. These things are not to be measured by the money loss alone; besides this 
they mean, for many, sickness and death long after the flood has receded. As graph- 
ical illustration often helps to a clearer understanding than many pages of text, a few 
typical flood scenes have been reproduced from photographs taken during the progress 
of the flood, and will be found scattered through the book. The view, on the opposite 
page, of Stop Landing crevasse, which occurred on March 30, taken after the flood had 
subsided, shows the state in which flooded lands are left. 

The reports from the flooded distridls confirm fully the conclusions which we had 
already reached, from a study of the rainfall and hydrograph charts, as to the genesis 
of the flood. The general opinion of these officials is that the flood of this year was 
not equal to that of 18S2, except at a few scattered points. The remarks in the report 
of Mr. S. C. Emery, Weather Bureau observer at Memphis, as to the effe6l of the St. 

47 



48 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Francis levee, which has been construdled since the great flood of 1S90, are specially 
interesting. The comparative table of gauge readings at Cairo, Memphis, and Helena, 
which he presents, seems to support his proposition that this levee, even in its incom- 
plete state, has had the effedl of raising the height of great floods three or four feet at 
the head of the Yazoo bottom. 

81. Extent of the overfloiu. — The extent of the present flood has been carefully- 
investigated. Charts were prepared by the Weather Bureau officials for the various 
reaches of the rivers, by the aid of reports obtained from the numerous correspondents 
of the Bureau in the flooded distridls. Similar charts had also been prepared bj- the 
engineer ofiicers in charge of the levee distri6ls of the l/ower Mississippi, and copies 
of these were kindly furnished to the Weather Bureau. From these sources the over- 
flowed area has been charted, and is shown by the darker tint on the map of the allu- 
vial regions, Plate II. This map, while, of course, not accurate in minute details, 
represents with substantial corre6lness the flooded area. From planimetric measure- 
ments the extent of the overflow in each seAion of the alluvial plain has been deter- 
mined, and, together with the total areas of alluvial lowland in the respedlive se(5lions, 
is given in the following table. The latter data are as given by the Mississippi River 
Commission in 1887, with the single exception of the sedlion on the west bank, 
between Helena and Arkansas City, where the overflow of this 3'ear exceeded the 
stated area of alluvial land. 



Tabi,e XXII. — Extent of overflo-dL< areas. 



Reach of river. 



On the east bank. 

Commerce, Mo., to Memphis, Tenn 

Yazoo bottom 

Vicksburg, Miss., to Baton Rouge, La 

Baton Rouge, La. , to the Gulf 

On the west bank. 

St. Francis bottom 

Helena, Ark., to Arkansas Cit}-, Ark 

Tensas bottom 

Basin of Atchafalaya Bayou 

Basin of La Fourche Ba3-ou 

Total 



In the 
past. 



29, 986 



In 1897. 



Sq. miles. 


Sq 


miles. 


616 




58,s 


6,648 




4,273 


415 




II 


2,001 




12 


6,090 




2,660 


1,152 




1,152 


4,955 




3, "3 


6,085 




884 


2,024 




890 



13,57s 



82. Losses by the flood. — The precise extent of the loss resulting from a great flood 
is impossible of estimate. This loss results from many causes, among which we may 
enumerate the destruftion of buildings, fences, levees, and similar constru61ions ; the 
drowning of stock ; the ruin of growing crops, and, if the flood is late in the season, 
the prevention of subsequent planting and hence the total loss of the 3'ear's crop ; the 
injury to land by covering it with sand and debris, a loss that is probably in the total 
more than counterbalanced by the general enrichment of the soil by the deposit of rich 
alluvion ; and the injury or carrying away of implements and movable propert}'. The 
loss to wage earners by the cessation of work is also a large fa^lor in the damage 
infli6led by flood. 

By a consideration of the overflowed area, as shown on Plate II, the statistician of 
the Department of Agriculture has estimated the value of movable agricultural property 
in the flooded district at the beginning of the flood at about $15,000,000, as follows ; 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1S97. 49 

Horses, cattle, sheep, and other live stock $10,037,540 

Corn, oats, cotton, and other movable products, of last year's crop 4,664,900 

Total 14,702,440 

This, it will be noted, inclndes no real estate and no personal propert}', other than stock 
and crops, the greater part of which was moved to places of safety as a result of 
Weather Bureau warnings. 

83. Work of tJie Weather Bureau. — The River and Flood Service of the Weather 
Bureau embraces at the present time one hundred and thirteen river stations at which 
the height of river, together with certain meteorological data, is observed. These are 
supplemented by seventy-five rainfall and special stations, from which reports are 
obtained in time of flood. These stations are grouped about certain centers, at which 
their reports are colle6led. The essential dutj' of the Weather Bureau in this work is 
the issuance of warnings of impending floods. For this purpose the official at each 
river center is assigned a certain territory, for the proper warning of which he is held 
responsible. 

From the press reports and other sources of information, it appears that this dutv 
Avas well performed in the late flood. The conditions having become critical, a special 
warning was issued from the Washington oflice on March 15, that "the impending 
flood will prove very destruAive in Arkansas and northern Louisiana." Again, on 
March 19, a special warning was issued that "the floods in the Lower Mississippi 
during the next ten da3's or two weeks will, in many places, equal or exceed, in magni- 
tude and destrudliveness, those of any previous years, and additional warning is given 
to the residents of the threatened distridts in Arkansas, Louisiana, and western Mis- 
sissippi to remove from the region of danger." Indeed, so completely was the public 
warned that it caused criticism, in certain quarters, that the Bureau was needlessly 
alarming the people in the threatened districts. Subsequent events, however, fully 
justified the a6lion of the Weather Bureau. 

There follow, in the subsequent paragraphs, the detailed reports upon the river 
conditions of the past spring. These are grouped with respecft to the five great tribu- 
taries, the Ohio, Upper Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red, as well as the Lower 
Mississippi itself. 

THE OHIO RIVER. 

84. Sources to Wheeling, W. f^a., reported by Mr. Frank Ridgway, Local Forecast 
Official., Pittsburg, Pa., June 16, i8gj. — Both the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers 
originate in and flow through hilly and mountainous districts, and are subjedt to 
frequent floods, which are charadlerized b}' an overflow confined to narrow limits, and 
a verj' rapid subsidence. Agricultural interests suffer little, the damage being con- 
fined almost entirely to navigation, railroads, and manufa6luring establishments. 

During the spring of 1897 two floods occurred in western Pennsylvania — the first, 
in February, being confined to the Monongahela, and the other, in March, to the Alle- 
ghany watershed. On February 20 rain began to fall over the IMonongahela valley, 
and continued until the early morning of the 23d. The rain was general in character 
and averaged over two inches on the 21st and 2 2d, causing the Monongahela river to 
rise from a moderately low stage on the 21st to a flood stage during the earl 3- morning 
7 MISS 



50 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

of the 23d. The river continued high all day and the following night ; the fall was 
not rapid until the night of the 24th. The banks were overflowed at many points, but 
pradlically no damage resulted in the headwater distridls. In the lower distridls trans- 
portation, shipping, and manufacfturing interests suffered greatly, the damage, at a 
conservative estimate, amounting to about half a million dollars. It is further esti- 
mated that the loss to wage-earners, by being thrown out of employment while the 
water flooded the mills, and while repairs were being made, amounted to at least 
$400,000, which brings up the figures representing the entire loss on account of the 
flood to nearly f 1,000,000. 

On March i from one to two inches of snow remained on the ground over the 
larger part of the watershed of the Alleghany river and its tributaries. The mild 
temperature during the first week of the month caused the snows to melt, and this, 
supplemented by the general rains which fell over western Pennsylvania during the 
same period, caused flood conditions in the Alleghany river on the 6th. The only 
damage caused by the high water, was in the delay of railroad traffic while tracks were 
submerged. During the floods of both February and March the upper Ohio overflowed 
its banks at several points, but no considerable damage is reported to have been done. 

85. Wheeling to Point Pleasant^ W. Va., reported by Mr. H. L. Ball., Observer., 
Parkersburg ., W. Va., June 18, i8gj. — On the eastern border of West Virginia the 
Alleghanies traverse the state its length, and form a watershed, eastward to the Atlantic, 
westward to the Ohio, four-fifths of the state draining westward. The surface of the 
state, scarified and torn by a multitude of mountains, threaded by numberless valleys, 
and bounded on the west by the undulating basin of the Ohio, represents every sort of 
topography. The serrated hills and tortuous ravines are waterways down which often 
sweep mighty torrents. So rapid is the fall of the streams that a downpour of rain in 
the hills is followed in the narrow valleys by a rush of water as of a tidal wave, and 
which as quickly recedes ; and it is only when the more sluggish Ohio is reached that 
the march of the flood becomes less riotous. In the interior, floods may and often do 
occur which have no great effedl upon the Ohio, but do great damage to crops and 
property along the smaller streams. 

At the outset it may be stated that, in West Virginia, the floods of February and 
March, though great, were not unprecedented .or disastrous. At the opening of Feb- 
ruary from 6 to 10 inches of snow lay upon the mountains in the northern part of the 
state. Cold weather had prevailed and the rivers were frozen. Increasing warmth and 
general rains caused a break-up, and from February 7 to 10 the rivers were full and 
running freely. Such were the conditions preceding the general and heavy rains which 
fell from the 20th to the 24th of the month. The average rainfall during these four 
days, over that part of the state draining into the Ohio, was 3.3 inches, and over that 
draining into the Potomac, 2.7 inches. The rivers, already full, were made raging 
torrents, especially those emptying into the Great Kanawha. Sudden and heavj' rises 
occurred in all the mountain streams, and the danger line was reached at many points. 
In the Monongahela, the Cheat, the Potomac, and the Great and Little Kanawhas, the 
rise began on the 22d, and reached its highest on the 23d and 24th. The Ohio felt the 
heavy rains almost as quickly as the smaller streams, and the latter were choked by 
backwater, and overflowed their valleys. The most sudden and serious rises occurred 
in the Monongahela and the Great and Little Kanawhas. 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 5 1 

The river stages at Parkersburg and Marietta are praAically the same, except 
when a rise occurs in the Little Kanawha. During the period under consideration, 
very heavy rains fell along the Muskingum and Little Kanawha rivers, and these were 
immediately felt in the Ohio at Parkersburg. The river began rising on the 22d, and 
rose rapidly until the 25th, when it reached a maximum stage of 37.9 feet, the crest of 
the wave passing at 4:15 p. m. The Little Kanawha during this time was out of bank 
along all the lowlands, and immense quantities of timber and railroad ties were washed 
from the side streams into the Ohio. Freight traffic on the Ohio River Railroad was 
abandoned, and several hundred families living along the river front were compelled to 
move to high ground. No diredl loss was occasioned b}- the high water, other than the 
washing away of lumber and ties, the Weather Bureau having issued flood warnings 
in ample time for the moving or securing of other property. The stage of water at 
Parkersburg was not unusual. 

The Elk, Coal, Gauley, Guyandotte, and Big Sandy rivers were flooded, and 
immense quantities of lumber and ties were washed away, and many families on 
the lowlands were driven to high ground. No accurate statement can be given of the 
loss, but $250,000 appears to be a conservative estimate, founded upon the general 
reports through newspapers and otherwise. While the floods were undoubtedl}' great 
and widespread, they were by no means unprecedented or unusually disastrous. There 
is not found recorded the loss of a single human life, and the suffering caused by the 
necessity of moving from habitations was no more than could be expelled by people 
who will live along the river fronts. 

86. Point Pleasant to Laiurenceburg ^ Ind., reported by Mr. S. S. Bassler, Local 
Forecast Official, Cincinnati, Ohio, June 5, iSgj. — Bxcept at the cross valleys, through 
which the large tributaries — the Great Kanawha, Guyandotte, Big Sandy, Scioto, and the 
two Miamis — flow, the country along the Ohio river, between Point Pleasant and Law- 
renceburg, is fairly well protected from serious overflows by the series of hills and 
highlands through which the mighty volume of water, gathered mainly from the 
mountainous territory of West Virginia and western Pennsylvania, is swiftly carried 
to the Lower Mississippi. 

A remarkably good stage of water and great adlivity in river traffic, for the season 
of the year, prevailed during January up to the 27th, when navigation was suspended 
on account of increasingly heavy floating ice. Ice gorges formed, which, under the 
influence of milder weather and rain during the first part of Februarj^, were broken 
up and carried away without damage of any consequence. Navigation on the Ohio 
river was twice suspended during the month of February, which was charadlerized by 
a continuation of the January ice-run and by high water. Since i860 only two higher 
stages than that of last February have occurred — one in Februar}', 1883, and the other, 
and greatest in the history of the river, in February, 1884. Sudden and almost simul- 
taneous rises at all points in the Ohio valley, due to general and extraordinary rainfall, 
were the remarkable features of the 1897 flood. 

At Point Pleasant the Great Kanawha, one of the most important tributaries of 
the Ohio, pours the water collefted in southern West Virginia, western Virginia, and 
the northwestern corner of North Carolina into the main stream. The land at Point 
Pleasant is hilly, and comprises two terraces, the first extending to Seventh street, 
and the second to Thirteenth street. At a stage of 52 feet the water entirely covers the 



52 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



first terrace. During the high water of Februar}^ about one-half of the town was flooded 
from I to 7 feet in depth. The damage was small and has not been estimated. The 
river observer reports that advantage was taken of timely flood warnings issued, and 
only the few who ignored the warnings suffered. 

The following table shows the danger line and river stages at points named, dur- 
ing the time of highest water, between Point Pleasant and Cincinnati : 



Date. 


Point Pleasant, W. Va. 
Danger line, 36 ft. 


Cattlettsburg, Ky. 
Danger line, 50 ft. 


Portsmouth, Ohio. 
Danger line, 50 ft. 


Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Danger line, 45 ft. 


Stage. 


Rise in 24 
hours. 


Stage. 


Rise in 24 
hours. 


Stage. 


Rise in 24 

hours. 


Stage. 


Rise in 24 
hours. 


February 21 

February 22 

February 23 

Februar)' 24 

February 25 


Feet. 

19-5 
30.2 

45- 
50-9 
52.3 
50-5 


Feet. 

1-5 

10.7 

14.8 

5-9 

1.4 


Feet. 
24. I 
37-5 
52-4 
56.0 

58.5 
56.5 


Feet. 
I. 2 

13-4 

14.9 

3-6 

2.5 


Feet. 

25-5 
37-0 
51-8 
57-4 
59-0 
58-1 


Feet. 
1. 

II- 5 

14.8 

5-6 

1.6 


Feet. 

29-5 
41.0 

50-4 
56-0 

59-4 
61. 1 


Feet. 

0.4 
II- 5 
9-4 
5-6 
3-4 
1-7 











For 15 miles from its junftion with the Ohio the Guyandotte river was overflowed. 
Guj^andotte, W. Va., was nearl}' all under water. Proclor^'ille, Ohio, on the opposite 
side of the river, is situated on a long stretch of bottom land, and was about two- 
thirds overflowed. The highest stage over this area of bottom land occurred on 
February 24, and the overflow on both sides of the river was 3 miles wide, water 
remaining in the bottom for ten days. Much distress and man}' losses were sustained 
along this part of the river. It is estimated that the damage to the town and farms in 
the vicinity would reach not less than $10,000. Nearlj- the entire cit}' of Catlettsburg, 
K3^, was covered with from i to 7 feet of water. The lowlands along the Big Sand}' 
were overflowed, as is generally the case when that tributarv gets out of its banks. It 
is estimated that $5,000 will cover the damage done at Catlettsburg. The water was 
above the danger line for six days. 

At Portsmouth, Ohio, the Scioto joined with the Ohio in making the rise both 
rapid and strong, and in less than four days covered 33.5 feet on the gauge. The water 
overflowed the lowlands from i to 6 feet, and a little over one-third of the city was 
flooded, including Mill and Front streets, the greater part of Third street, and the low 
portions of a great man}' other streets in both the dwelling and business distridls, 
compelling occupants of dwellings and business houses to vacate first floors. A warn- 
ing that the river would pass the danger line (50 feet) had been sent out by the 
Weather Bureau. This enabled those whose property was in jeopardy to move their 
goods to places of safety. For a distance of about 5 miles above its mouth the bottom 
lands of the Scioto river average about 2 miles in width. Over these bottoms the 
water was 20 feet deep. In Kentucky, opposite Portsmouth, high hills closely border 
the river. The total land submerged in and near Portsmouth was about 9,900 acres, 
and the estimated damage was $10,000. 

The Little Miami river flows into the Ohio just east of Cincinnati, through a 
stretch of fertile bottom land. This serves as a storage reservoir for an immense 
amount of backwater. The overflow into the Little ]\Iiami valley extended about 4 
miles up the stream, and was, on an average, i mile wide. Cincinnati had ample warn- 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 53 

ing of the impending flood. On the morning of February 23 the rapidlj^ rising river 
had exceeded the stage forecasted by 0.4 foot. Careful calculation and the use of the 
telegraph confirmed the opinion that 60 feet, if not more, would be reached at Cincin- 
nati. The warning was therefore renewed, and, at 9 a. m. of the 26th, the river came 
to a stand at 61.2 feet. Great damage by water to goods and merchandise in cellars 
throughout the wholesale distriAs, usuall}^ covered by floods, was averted b}' prompt 
removal. The total loss from all causes, resulting from the flood, is estimated at 
$150,000 at Cincinnati, $30,000 in the Mill Creek bottom, and about $25,000 along the 
mouth of the Licking river. 

Below Cincinnati there was comparatively little loss until the bottom lands of the 
Big Miami river were reached, where there was an overflow. Lawrenceburg, Ind., 
suffered no loss this j^ear, thanks to the new Government levee, which withstood the 
pressure of the water. 

87. Lawrencebitrg to Mt. Vernon^ Iiid., reported by Mr. Frank Burke, Local 
Forecast Official, Louisville, Ky., June 20, i8gy. — The conditions prior to the spring 
flood of 1897 did not, in any manner, give reason to apprehend a serious rise. There 
was an almost total absence of snowfall ; the early spring rains were generally moderate, 
and only sufficient to maintain a fair stage of water until February 22. Upon this 
date excessive downpours caused the stream to swell rapidly, and brought it above the 
danger line at Loviisville on the 24th, and at Mt. Vernon on the following day. It 
attained its maximum height, 35.4 feet, at the former place on the 28th, and, except 
for the interval from March 5 to 10, was above the danger line until March 16, after 
which the water subsided rapidly, and at the close of the "month had resumed its normal 
stage. At Mt. Vernon the rise began on February 8, and on the 12th the water was 
close to the danger line, near which it hovered until the 25th, passing it upon that day, 
remaining from 5 to 10 feet above it until INIarch 26, and attaining its maximum height 
of 44.9 feet on March 17. During the latter days of the month the water was receding 
very rapidly. 

To the succession of heavy rains, occurring between February 22 and March 10, the 
main rise can be attributed. All the smaller tributaries of the Ohio, especially those 
entering the river from the northern side, were bank-full during this period, and the 
outflowing waters maintained the stream at a flood stage for a month or more. The 
topograph}- of the country along the river banks from Lawrenceburg to Lewisport, Ky., 
precludes any very great damage, even from an exceptionally high stage of water. 
The hills rise abruptly from the water, or are separated from it by lowlands, ranging 
from a few hundred j^ards to half a mile in width. From Lewisport to Mt. Vernon the 
distance between the hills on either side of the river gradually increases, the lowlands 
being rarely less than a mile, and in manj^ places 5 miles wide. During the climax of 
the flood these lowlands were under water, but only for a short time, and pradlically no 
damage resulted in this sedlion. The greatest loss was occasioned by the smaller 
streams in Indiana washing out tracks, bridges, and culverts, and causing an almost 
total suspension of traffic on the railroads entering Louisville from the north, for the 
week subsequent to March 6. 

At Evansville, Ind., the greatest apprehension was felt in regard to the threatened 
cut-off above the city. Evansville is located on what is known as the " Horse Shoe 
Bend," opposite a projection of the Kentucky shore in the shape of a peninsula. During 



54 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

every high water a current is formed across this peninsula, about 8 miles above Evans- 
ville, and empties just above Henderson, Ky. It was supposed that this current was 
more dangerous than usual, owing to the fadl that an ice gorge, which had formed just 
before the rise of the river, had worn away the channel, and that a strong current would 
flow through and possibly divert the river itself. Though the aftion of the water was 
not continued long enough for this to happen, it was considered necessary by the United 
States engineers to take steps to prevent a recurrence of the trouble. 

88. Mt. Venion to tlie mouthy reported by Mr. P. H. Smyth., Observer^ Cairo., 
III., May 5p, iSgy. — During this spring, for the fourth time in thirty years, the river 
at Cairo reached a stage exceeding 51 feet. The flood in the lower Ohio valley did 
not, however, equal in magnitude nor destrudliveness the floods of 1882 and 1884. At 
most points the water lacked 3 to 7 feet of being as high as in 1884, but at Mound 
City, 111., the river reached a stage 3 inches higher than the previous high-water mark. 
This unusual stage is believed to have been due to the Government gravel road, which 
runs from Mound City to Mound City Junftion, a distance of about 3 miles, and has 
been construfted within the past four years. 

At Cairo a great volume of water, instead of taking its natural channel, passed 
over the embankment at Birds Point, Mo., nearly opposite the mouth of the Ohio. 
This water reentered the Mississippi at Lucas' Bend, a point about 14 miles below. 
On the Kentucky side the water was over the lowlands and bottoms for from four to six 
weeks. All lowlands in the vicinity of Paducah, Ky., and the lower portions of Paducah 
itself were flooded from March 3 to April 18, forty-seven days. A conservative estimate . 
of the money value of property destroyed or damaged by this spring's flood, in the 
lower Ohio valley, is $175,000. Many thousands of acres of wheat were drowned out 
and ruined, and thousands of bushels of corn in cribs were destroyed. The loss of 
stock was very small, it having been removed to places of safety. For nearly one 
month navigation was considerably interfered with, and river business was pradlically 
at a standstill during the period of high water. 

89. Tennessee river, reported by Mr. L. M. Pindell, Observer, Chattanooga, Tenn., 
June ij, iSgy. — In July, 1896, a protra6led spell of dr}' weather set in, which continued 
during the rest of the year, except for a few heavy showers in December. With a dry 
spell, extending over a period of six months, it was to be expedled that the early spring 
would be accompanied by heavy precipitation. In February, 1897, the rainfall 
saturated the earth, and, when March opened with heavy precipitation, the water 
drained quickly into the streams. The precipitation was heavy during the whole of 
March, thus keeping the streams well filled ; the total rainfall ranged from 7 to 13 
inches over the watershed. General and heavy rain fell over the entire river on the 
6th, i2th, 14th, and 19th, and heavy rain at a few stations on the 9th, loth, i6th, and 
i8th ; from the 3d to the 23d the rain was almost continuous. The river rose from the 
4th to the 14th at Chattanooga. The Clinch river, at Clinton, had three distindl rises, 
and the Tennessee, at Rockwood, had two, and at Chattanooga three rises during the 
month ; at Chattanooga the crests of these rises occurred on the 8th, 14th, and 22d, 
respedlively. At Lower Muscle Shoals the river observations were discontinued on the 
19th (the gauge reading at that time being 17.7 feet) on account of the water being 
over the gauge ; the observations were resumed on the 24th. Another rise followed 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 55 

the heav}^ rainfall which occurred during the first five daj'S of April, but the river did 
not reach the danger line at any point above Florence. 

At Chattanooga the river covered the lowlands and bottoms from February 25 to 27, 
March 13 to 18, and on the 21st and 2 2d, in all ten days. It is estimated that 5 square 
miles were covered by water; the flood of 1867 covered about 30 square miles. The 
river reached the highest point, 38.2 feet, at 3:30 p. m. on March 14, and remained 
stationary up to 9:30 p. m., when it began to fall. After April 6 the river declined 
gradually until Ma}^ 11, when another rainv spell set in, causing the river to rise until 
the 22.4-foot mark was reached on Ma}^ 15. Since that date dry weather has prevailed, 
and the river has fallen to low water. At Florence, Ala., the river began to rise on 
March 6 and to fall on the 20th, reaching a stage 1.4 foot higher than any previous 
flood. 

At Riverton, Ala., the rise commenced during the day on Februar}- 23, the gauge 
reading at 6 a. m. on that day having been 7.5 feet. The water rose rapidly until the 
evening of March 2, when the gauge read 26.6. This water all came from the upper 
river and the reports from above Chattanooga were so alarming that extensive prepa- 
rations were -made at the Government works here to protedl perishable and floating 
property. Notwithstanding these reports and indications, a rapid fall occurred between 
the 2d and 6th of March, the gauge reading 14.3 feet at 6 a. m. on the 6th, a fall of 12 feet 
in four days. On the 6th the water commenced to rise rapidly. Until the nth the rise 
was due entirely to water from above this point. On the night of the nth there was 
an unusually heavy rain, inaugurating a series of frequent and heavy showers, ^yhich 
culminated on the night of the 17th in a storm of unusual severity. The rain fell in 
torrents "almost continuously for forty hours, beginning about 9 p. m. on the 17th, and 
stopping about i p. m. on the 19th. The quantity of rain which fell during this period 
is estimated at 8 inches. The effedl of this rain, falling as it did on ground already 
saturated with water, was marked, as is best shown by the record of the river gauge, 
which was as follows : 

March 18, 6 a. m., 41. i ; 6 p. m., 43.0. 
March 19, 6 a. m., 47.3 ; 6 p. m., 49.6. 
March 20, 6 a. m., 50.3 ; 6 p. m., 49.7. 

Between 6 p. m. on the i8th and 6 a. m. on the 19th the rise was most rapid, 
amounting to 4.3 feet, and attaining a rate of 6 inches per hour during part of the time. 
The crest of the rise reached Riverton during the early morning of the 20th, at which 
time the gauge read 50.3 feet. The records of 1867 and 1875, which are said to be 
identical in this neighborhood, were exceeded by about 2.5 feet. Between ]\Iarch 6, 
when the second rise began, and March 20, when it culminated, the river rose a total of 
36 feet, making an average rate of over 2.5 feet per day, and a maximum of 6.2 feet 
from the i8th to 19th. The overflowed distridl includes pradlicall}' all of the land 
between the bluffs from Florence to Pittsburg Landing, a distance of over 60 miles. 
The average distance between the bluffs is estimated at 2 miles. 

At Johnsonville, Tenn., the river reached 48 feet on March 24, being 27 feet above 
danger line. It had passed the danger line on February 28, and did not fall below it 
until April 18. The river reached the same stage as it did in the high water of 1S82. 
The lowlands above and below the city were submerged. The river was out of its 
banks nearly four weeks. The highest point was reached at the mouth on March 24, 



56 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

at a stage of 50.9 feet ; the higiiest stage ever reached was on Februar}- 22, 1884, when 
the river reached 54.5 feet. The overflow along the lower Tennessee was from i to 4 
miles wide. 

THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

90. Soiiires to Reeds Landings Mniu., reported by Mr. P. F. Lyons, Observer, St. 
Paul, Minn., May 12, 1897. — The recent high water in the rivers of Minnesota may 
be traced back to the abnormally heavy precipitation of Odlober and November, 1896, 
supplemented by the rather early setting in of freezing weather, and, while not a severe, 
still a rather long winter, with a much more than average snov^all. The accumula- 
tion of snow on the ground during January', Februarj^, and most of March, was far in 
excess of anything seen since the winter of 1880-81. In the spring following that 
winter the rivers attained the highest stages of which there is a reliable record, during 
April and May, 1881. The rainy season, which had its beginning in Minnesota about 
the middle of March, was by no means marked; in fa6l, the rainfall from that date to 
April 30 was rather light, and considerably below normal. No damage of consequence 
resulted from high water along the St. Croix ; on the Mississippi the boom companies 
sustained the major portion of damage, which is estimated at $60,000, from the break- 
ing of booms and the escape of millions of feet of logs, that floated down the river and 
were finally gathered up about lake Pepin. 

The high water attained the maximum stage at St. Paul on April 6, at 18 feet; 
this stage was equaled April 16, 1875, and was surpassed April 29, 1881, when the 
extreme record of 19.7 feet was made. The river remained above danger line (14 feet) 
from April i to 18 ; after that there was a gradual and stead}' fall. 

91. Reeds Landing to North McGregor, Lowa, reported by Mr. M.J. Wright, Jr., 
La Crosse, Wis., June 4, 1S97. — With the exception of the highest lands, the entire 
Mississippi bottom, from Reeds Landing to North ]\IcGregor, a distance of 147 miles, 
was overflowed. The width of the bottom, from bluff to bluff, in this sedfion averages 
3 miles. At Winona, Minn., the highest stage of water, according to the records kept 
by the Chicago and Northwestern Railway Compau}', at the bridge, was 6 inches lower 
than in 1880. One death by drowning was due dire6lly to the flood, that of a child of 
two and a half 3-ears. The flood in the vicinit}- of Winona was nearly if not quite as 
severe as in 1880, although the damage was small. Some of the residents on the 
shores of lake Winona had to move out of their houses on account of high water. 

Along the shores of lake Pepin there is verj- little land subjedf to overflow, but on 
iVpril 18 a very high south wind, veering to the west, washed the water over the banks 
and undermined the roadbeds of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, and the Chicago, 
Burlington, and Northern railroads, but traffic was interrupted for only a couple of 
daj'S. The ice moved out of lake Pepin on April 5, thawing before it reached beyond 
Winona. It is a very unusual occurrence for ice to move out of lake Pepin, as it 
usuallj' melts in the lake. It is presumed that a high northerly wind, which prevailed 
shortl}' before the ice in the lake broke up, was the cause of its moving out this 3'ear. 

Ice moved out of the Chippewa river into the IMississippi the latter part of March, 
and the log jam moved out on April 3, at 11 a. m. Alanv square miles of land were 
overflowed in Buffalo and Pepin counties. Wis., and Wabasha count}-, ]\Iinn., during 
April. The area of country known as the Chippewa bottoms is rather thickl}' settled, 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 57 

stock and hay being raised exclnsivel}^ Previous to the rise these settlers moved their 
families and stock to adjacent high land, and did not return to their homes until the 
water subsided, which was about the end of April. This sedlion was overflowed from 
three to four weeks. The Chippewa gorge moved out and thawed so gradually that 
the onljj^ damage resulted to overflowed lands and delayed trains. A large amount of 
lumber and logs were scattered over the Chippewa bottoms. 

In the vicinity of I^a Crosse the Mississippi, I^a Crosse, and Black rivers overflowed 
their banks, the water covering some farming lands and bottoms. At La Crosse the 
highest stage of water reached was 13.7 feet, and the flood lasted about ten days. From 
April 5 to 19 the levee, from State street to the wagon bridge, was covered with several 
inches of water, and the tracks of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroad, on 
Front street, were submerged. The damage was small, as the Weather Bureau had 
given warnings of the approaching flood, and the occupants of buildings on the levee 
had removed from their basements all goods that were liable to be damaged b}^ water. 
The large area of the city, known as the North Side, was overflowed, and several 
families had to vacate their houses. The Onalaska ele6lric car line was submerged for 
about ten days, during which time no cars could be run. The damage to the Missis- 
sippi bridges at this point, from high water and floating ice, was $2,500, and the damage 
to railroad property is estimated at an equal amount. The cost of picking up the drift- 
ing logs this spring was estimated at $10,000, and a large number of logs were never 
recovered. The flood of 1880 was more severe in many respedls. 

92. North McGregor to Clinton^ loiva^ reported by Mr. L. M. Tarr, Observer, 
Dubuque, Iowa, June 18, iSgy. — The tributaries of the Mississippi in this sedlion are 
numerou'S, but are all very small streams, except the Wisconsin, Galena, and Maquo- 
keta rivers. The water was high in th;s2 and th2 smaller streams, but no serious 
damage was done, with the exception of the washing away of two or three small county 
bridges. The Mississippi between North McGregor and Clinton runs for the entire 
distance between high bluffs, which prevent it overflowing much arable land. The 
water began rising before the ice went out, which was on March 19 at Dubuque, and it 
continued to rise slowly but steadily until April 15, when the highest point, 17.9 feet, 
was reached at this place. This was 2.9 feet above the danger line, and 3.9 feet below 
the high water of June, 1880. At North McGregor the river reached its highest point, 
17.6 feet, on April 13, and was then 0.4 foot below the danger line. The river rose 
slowly, and the daily river bulletins from this office kept the people informed of river 
conditions, and there was ample time to prepare for the rise. There were no lives 
lost and no serious damage was done in this sedlion. 

In the cities and villages along the river a few families occupying houses in low 
places had to move out for a few days, and basements and cellars were flooded. The 
lumber yards in Dubuque were at considerable expense in moving lumber on low ground, 
but none of it was washed away. The damage by the high water between North 
McGregor and Clinton was very slight, i ne Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul rail- 
road runs the entire distance along the west bank of the river, and the Chicago, Bur- 
lington, and Northern runs on the east bank. These roads are very close to the river 
for the entire distance, and yet they suft'ered no inconvenience from the high wa,tef, 
There were no washouts on either road, and no trains delayed. 

S MISS 



58 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

93. Clinton to Burlington^ lozua, reported by Mr. F. J. U^alz, Local Forecast 
Official, Davenport, Iowa, May /j, i8gj. — Tlie Avater did not begin rising \\-itli much 
rapidity at Clinton until April 5, and the flood crest of 16.8, or 2.8 feet above the 
danger line, was reached on April 17. The highest stage at Burlington was 13.3, or 3.3 
feet above the danger line, on the 19th. The water registered 13 feet at Burlington on 
the 20th, and remained nearh' stationary until the 27th, after which a rapid fall began. 
The river received a considerable increment, which showed on the gauge at Burlington, 
from the Iowa river, and this was due to the heavj' local rains over central and south- 
eastern Iowa. The islands and lowlands in the vicinit}' of Clinton were generall}^ 
inundated, but onh' slight damage resulted, as the}^ are sparsel}- populated, and are 
cultivated to only a small extent. A few houses in Clinton, mostl}- verv cheap ones, 
occupied b}' the poorer classes, were flooded so that the occupants had to abandon 
them. 

From Clinton to the mouth of the Wapsipinicon river some 5,000 acres were over- 
flowed on the Iowa side of the river, including the islands, and of this area not over 
one-third is cultivated land. On the Illinois side of the river the banks are high and 
the countrv well prote6led down as far as the mouth of Rock river, except in what is 
known as the ]\Ieredosia slough. The latter district was generall}- submerged, but as 
it is largely swampy, waste land, it could not be considered damaged by the flood. 
About the mouth and extending up the broad vallej" of the AVapsipinicon river are 
rich, fertile bottom lands under high cultivation. About 6,000 acres of land in 
this district, which include many fine farms, were inundated ; but the damage even 
here will not be great, as farming operations had not yet begun, and the water receded 
and the land dried off in time to allow a late planting to be made. The ha}- crop, 
which is large in this sedlion, is unhurt. Below the mouth of the Wapsipinicon, and 
on to Davenport, little or no damage Avas done. The river did not get out of its banks 
in this reach, and onl}- a few islands, mostl}- uncultivated land, were overflowed. 

In Davenport and Rock Island there was little or no damage other than the flood- 
ing, to a small extent, of cellars and basements in the business houses near the river. 
The Burlington, Cedar Rapids, and Northern line of railroad, running into Davenport, 
had to abandon, for a week or so, its tracks entering the city along the levee ; but its 
trains were brought in and out over the tracks of another road, and no loss other than 
a little delay and inconvenience resulted. Below Davenport, Big Island, at the mouth 
of Rock river, was partly covered. From this point to i\Iuscatine, Iowa, the river 
banks are high, and the ' country on both sides well protected from overflow at the 
highest stages of water. The islands in this reach were all prettv generallv covered, 
but there is little or no cultivated land upon them, and what there is will be dried off in 
time to raise a crop. Muscatine island, extending from Muscatine nearly to the mouth 
of the Iowa river, and containing some 20,000 to 25,000 acres of the most valuable and 
highl}' cultivated land in Iowa, would have been entirel}- submerged had it not been 
so well protected \>y an excellent private levee, which extends along nearly the full 
length of it. This levee held intact, as it also did in the much higher flood of 1S92. 
There was no break in it, except a slight one at the lower end of the island, which was 
of no consequence, and was soon repaired. The part of the island below Port Louisa, 
not protected b\' the levee, was entirel}^ submerged, and considerable damage resulted. 
The area flooded, including the whole distridl on the Iowa side of the rixox, as far 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1 89 7. 59 

soutli as tlie Iowa river, will amount to some 10,000 acres, and the damage done is 
about $70,000. 

From Drury's Landing to New Boston, on the Illinois side of the river, the bottom 
lands, amounting to some 30,000 acres, of which about one-sixth is cultivated, were all 
overflowed. The damage in this distridl will aggregate $80,000. From the Iowa 
river, south to Burlington, there was a general overflow of the bottom lands and islands. 
In places the inundation stretched clear to the bluffs, some 6 or 7 miles distant from 
the natural shore line. On the Iowa side, in Louisa county, there were many excellent 
farms covered, and the damage here will amount to considerable. The land submerged 
is some 30,000 or 40,000 acres, the greater part of which is cultivated. The only cases 
of suffering and destitution on account of the flood, north of Burlington, occurred in 
this Louisa county distriA, and was principally among the tenant farmers in the Iowa 
and Mississippi river bottoms, and the subcontradlors and laborers on the Government 
levee. Thieves (or Huron) Island, containing some 2,000 acres of farming land and 
having about 125 inhabitants, was entirely covered, and the occupants compelled to 
abandon it for a time. On the Illinois side of the river the laud was overflowed from 
2 miles below Oquawa to opposite Burlington ( 10 miles below) and i to 3 miles back. 
This land, however, is low and swampy, and very little of it available for cultivation. 

94. Burlington to Qiiincy, III.^ reported by Mr. F. Z. Gosewisch^ Observer., Keokuk., 
Iowa., May 21^ iSgy. — The usual rise, with the breaking up of the ice, began early in 
Februar}^, causing onl}' a moderate stage, and by March 7, when the stead}- rise began, 
the river had fallen to the low stage of 2.4 feet at Keokuk. From this date the river 
rose, with some flu(?tuations, until the crest of the flood reached Keokuk on the morn- 
ing of A~pril 27, at a stage of 18.5 feet, then graduall}^ falling to below danger line by 
the morning of May 5. From Burlington to Keokuk the river hills extend nearl}^ to 
the banks, leaving but a narrow margin of land liable to overflow, except in Green Bay 
township of Lee County, Iowa, and on cultivated islands in the river in that vicinity. 
The losses at Green Baj- are estimated at $7,000. In the city of Keokuk the losses 
were confined to the lumber distridl, which was covered with from 2 to 4 feet of water, 
and the damage will not exceed $1,000. 

On the Illinois shore the river hills begin receding from the river at Warsaw, 111. 
South of Warsaw the bottoms are protected by substantial levees, and comprise the 
Hunt, Lima lake, and Indian Grave drainage distri(?ts. The Hunt levee was broken 
between 6 and 7 miles south of Warsaw on the morning of April 27, at a place where 
repairs had been made after the flood of 18S8, and where the new work joined the old. 
The break widened rapidly to 475 feet. The river at the time of breaking was 3 feet 
lower than the top of the levee. Within four days after the break 25,000 of the 30,000 
acres in the distridl were flooded with from 2 to 6 feet of water. The water from the 
break in the Hunt levee spread over the Lima lake distridl, inundating the entire 
14,000 acres embraced. The losses in these two distrifts are estimated at $64,000. 
The Indian Grave levee was not broken, but the distridl was overflowed earlj^ in January 
from the waters of Bear creek, and winter wheat was then destroyed, the later flood 
doing no damage. 

On the Missouri shore the laud is mostly unprotefted bottoms. The Eg3^ptian 
levee skirts the south bank of the Des Moines river, ending at Alexandria, Mo. The 
banks of Fox river are leveed to its mouth near Gregory, Mo., the levee then extend- 



6o FLOODS OF THE MISSISvSIPPI RIVER. 

iiig a short distance south, on the bank of the Mississippi. Owing to excessive rainfall 
durino- the month of March the levees were water-soaked, and much water soaked 
through the Egyptian levee at an early stage of the flood. On April i8 a considerable 
portion of the Missouri lands were overflowed, and the water began encroaching on the 
track of the St. Louis, Keokuk, and Northwestern railroad at a low point between 
Gregory and Canton, Mo. By April 24 southbound trains were abandoned, and on 
April 26 the Des Moines river poured over the top of the Egyptian levee, carrying out 
the railway track between the Des Moines river and Alexandria, Mo. The towns of 
Alexandria and Gregory were flooded. The Mississippi river, south of the Des Moines, 
was from 4 to 6 miles wide, extending inland to the foot of the hills. 

95. Quincv to Louisiana, Mo., reported by Mr. E. A. Niinino, OI)servei-, Hainiilml, 
Mo., June 5, iSgy. — Copious rains, during the latter part of March and early in April, 
caused all creeks and sloughs along the river to be filled to overflowing. The river 
during this time continued to rise steadily, and on April 4 the gauges at Quincy, Han- 
nibal, and Louisiana showed a rise of 7.5, S.8, and 10.2 feet, respedlively, since the 15th 
of the preceding month. On March 26 water began to invade all unprote6led bottom 
lands between Quincy and Louisiana, and by April 3 the entire bottom, extending 
back to the bluffs, and aggregating about 31,200 acres on the Missouri side, and about 
2,700 acres on the Illinois side, were submerged. During the period from A^aril 5 to 
14 the water receded somewhat, but by April 20 the bottom lands were again entirely 
covered and remained flooded until May 6. From this time onward the river fell 
rapidly, and on May 1 1 the water had entirely receded from the flooded distridf. 

At Hannibal the high water caused much inconvenience to property owners and 
railway companies along the river front. The wharf and floor of the Diamond Jo packet 
house was flooded, and, at the highest stage, water covered the floor to a depth of 15 
inches. The eledlric light plant, which is the property of the city of Hannibal, was 
entirely surrounded by water from April 26 to May 4, necessitating the use of boats to 
get to and from the building. During the time when the flood was at its height, con- 
siderable inconvenience was caused merchants on Main street by seepage, many cellars 
and basements having as much as 5 feet of water in them. 

96. Louisiana to the moutJi of t lie Missouri river, reported by Mr. LL. C. Franlcen- 
field, Local Forecast Official, St. Louis, Mo., May 20, i8gj. — Heavy rains in Iowa and 
northern Missouri about March 19 caused a rapid rise in the Des Moines and Fox 
rivers, and the commencement of this rise was felt at Louisiana on the 2 2d. Before the 
crest of this rise had passed, the first waters of the flood wave from the north arrived, 
and thereafter there was a slow, steady rise for six weeks, with the exception of a slight 
intermission during the second week in April. From Louisiana to St. Louis the flood 
was less marked than that in the Illinois river. At the former place the river goes 
over the banks at a 12-foot stage, and this stage was reached on March 27. The crest 
occurred on April 30, the stage being 1S.5 feet, or only 0.3 foot less than that of the 
great flood of 1892. The water did not again go below the danger line until May 10. 
About 20,000 acres of land were submerged on the Missouri side of the river, the 
Illinois side being protecfted by the Su}' levee, which successfully withstood the flood. 
Twelve miles below Louisiana the private levees of H. L. Hart and J. W. Col well were 
broken, and several thousand acres of fine farm lands overflowed. The loss in the 
vicinity of Louisiana was at least $75,000. In the vicinity of Clarksville, Mo., 10,000 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1 897. 61 

acres were overflowed, and damage done to tlie amount of $40,000. The water covered 
all the lands, except those places where the blulTs extend to the river. From Alton to 
St. Louis all lowlands were flooded, but the damage was trifling. The crest of the 
flood wave reached St. Louis on May 2, when a stage of 31 feet was recorded, being one 
foot above the danger line. The water remained above the danger line until May 5, 
and has since been falling rapidly. 

The heavy rains during the first week in Januar}^ brought the Illinois river to a 
stage approaching the danger line throughout its upper portion. During the remain- 
ing portion of January, and during February, sufficient rain fell to prevent any decided 
recession of the water. Consequently, when the heavy rains of March commenced, 
the already overburdened river could carry no more water, and overflows took place 
along its entire course. The flood proper may be said to have commenced on IMarch i , 
reaching its crest at Hennepin on the iSth. Owing to the wide overflow and the very 
slight fall of the river bed, the crest traveled very slowly, reaching Peoria on the 23d, 
Havana on the 27th, Frederick on the 2Sth, Versailles on April i, Naples on April 3, 
and Grafton on April 6. The decline was equally as slow, and the effedls of the flood 
waters of the. Illinois were felt at Grafton as late as May 5. The stages of the water 
during this flood were on an average about 6 feet lower than those of the great flood of 
1844. On the upper river, above Hennepin, there was oul}^ a slight overflow, covering 
some bottom lands, with little or no resulting damage. A total area of 500 square miles 
was overflowed. The extent of territory covered was quite small, as compared with that 
covered by the great flood of 1844, when the river averaged from 10 to 15 miles in width 
from La Salle to Grafton, and from Hardin to Grafton united with the Mississippi 
to form one continuous river. 

THE MISSOURI RIVER. 

97. Sources to Fort Yatcs^ N. Dak.^ reported by Mr. B. H. Bronsoii, Observer., 
Bismarck, N. Dak., April i-f, iSgy. — The past winter was an unusual one in North 
Dakota and Montana on account of the heav}^ snowfall, while the temperature was lower 
than usual, with the result that ice from 3 to 5 feet thick formed in all the streams, 
making an early break-up doubtful. The first part of March was unusuall}' cold, and 
the lowest temperatures ever recorded in that month occurred in the second decade, but 
warmer weather soon followed, especially in Montana, which caused the snow to melt 
rapidl}', and effedled a breaking up of the ice in the Yellowstone river the latter part of 
March. It was expedled that, when the water from the Yellowstone reached the 
Missouri, the latter would open, and that, on account of the thickness of the ice, much 
trouble would occur from gorges in the river. These expeftations were only partly 
realized; the river broke at this point early on the morning of April 5, and after the 
ice had moved for a short time it gorged, overflowing the bottom lands and flooding the 
railroad tracks. These conditions prevailed in some parts of the river between the 
mouth of the Yellowstone and Fort Yates until the nth, when the ice moved out and 
the river assumed its normal condition for this time of 3'ear. Aside from the delays to 
trains, no damage of any consequence was done, as there are very few people above this 
point along the river, and in most cases there was nothing to damage except some 
stock, which was removed early. 

98. Fort Yates to Chaviberlaiji, S. Dak., repoi'ted by Mi'. F. O. Stetson, Observer, 



62 I-'I.OODS OF THE MlSSISSim RU-KR. 

/'//■/rc, S. Diik.y June 20, iSgj. — Over nearl_v the whole drainaji-e area above Cham- 
berlain the snowfall, during tlie winter of 1896-97, was much Iiea\icr thau usual, and 
in some se6lions was the heaviest on record. That the damage from high water on the 
portion of the Missouri under consideration, during the spring of 1S97, ^^'^•'^ ^° small 
as to be inconsequential, is due to a fortunate combination of circumstances. The river 
oi)eucd gracluall\- from hclow, the ice passing out froui Chaml)erlaiu to W'elland before 
it had started at points a])ove; but few ice gorges were formed and these were not of 
sufficient size or strength to have any important effect; an alternation of warui and 
cool weather during the latter half of March allowed much of the snow-water to pass 
off gradually before the ice broke up, at the same time assisting in the uielting and 
rottiugof the ice, aiul there])v diuiiuishiug the danger of gorging. The foruiatiou of a 
gorge of considerable magnitude at Bismarck partially held back the water from above 
until the rise, due to the breaking up of the Missouri and its tributaries below that citv, 
had begun to subside. 

From Chamlicrlaiu uorlliward to Wellaud the river opened on the aSth or 2gt]i of 
March, the ice above remaining firm for several days longer. The iirst half of March 
was unusually cold, the average daily deficiency up to the i6th amounting to more 
than 16 degrees. The weather of the next five days was warmer than the average, and 
the tcuqicrature rcuiaiucd above the freezing-point during not only the day, but also the 
greater pai't of the uight. Tlie suow uielteil rajndly, aud on the i6th a thiu la\"er of 
water was observed flowiug over the ice in the river; by the following" day this had 
increased to a depth of 6 inches; aud on the iSth a volume of snow-water, two feet in 
depth, was passing down the river, continuing in somewhat smaller quantitv on the 
iqth. Had the weather coutiuued warui, the ice wtnild probabU- ha\e lirokeu up at 
this tiuie, but a succession of cold days kept the river closed uutil the water froui 
uielted suow had passed off. 

AltluMU'li the river froui Cliain])erlaiu to Fort Yates was higher than for several 
years, it overflowed its hanks at but one place, Rousseau, and here no damage whatever 
was ilouc, unless the ca\iug (tf the liauk uiav be considered such. Considerable 
cutting of the bank also occurred at Fielder. High water at Chamberlain, although 
the river was not at that place out of its banks, caused some injury to the pier and 
dike of the Pontoon Bridge Company. This is the only damage to property reported 
from Chamberlain to lAirt Yates. Near the mouth of the Little Chevenue, at Forest 
City, the lowlands were overflowed on March 29, making it expedient for several 
families to remove for a short time to higher ground, but there was no loss to property. 
With these exceptions there were no floods, so far as learned, on this reach of the river. 

99. Llhuiiht'ila/}! lo W'Diiilioii , S. Oak., rrpor/nf hv Mr. C. H. C. riiDiiif^soii, 
Obs('ri'(i\ )'(iit/:/()i/, S. /><//-., /ui/i- //, /S\)~. — An uiiusiialU' hca\\- fall of snow occurred 
throughout South Dakota during the past winter. The greatest amount, however, fell 
over that portion of the state lying east of the Mis.souri river. The ice in the river 
remained solid until about March zo, when it b;?gan breaking near \'ermiHmi ; it broke 
at Yauklcm on March 22, and at Chamberlain on March 26. As will be seen from the 
above dates the river began opening at the lower end of this reach, and gradually worked 
up stream. In this way there was little chance of ice gorges forming. Some few small 
gorges were formed below Chamberlain, causing the low and bottom lands along the 
rixer to be flooded, but not to aiu' serious extent. The range in depth of water in the 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1S97. 63 

Missouri river, from the time of the break-up to the time when the water subsided, was 
about 10 feet. I am unable to find a single case of loss of life caused bj' high water on 
the Missouri this spring, and, with the exception of the cutting out of some few acres 
of timber land, there was no loss of property. 

The White river, draining a part of the Black Hills country and flowing into the 
Missouri just below Chamberlain, opened about March 15. The stream was unusually 
high, but the ice ran out quickly and did little damage. The Niobrara river drains a 
part of the Black Hills countrj' and a portion of northwestern Nebraska. The exadl 
time at which it opened could not be learned, but it was between March 15 and 18, and 
the river was not unusually high. The James river is about 700 miles long and a 
very sluggish stream. It drains a considerable portion of South Dakota east of the 
Missouri river, and several counties of North Dakota. Its course is through that por- 
tion of the Dakotas where the greatest amount of snow was reported last winter. 'The 
few warm days, from March 16 to 20, melted suflicient snow to cause the stream to flow 
bank-full for several daj^s ; then another warm spell, from March 25 to 31, raised the 
water out of the banks. The warm, heavy rains of the last day of March and the first 
four days of April broke the ice and started a marked rise, which carried almost every- 
thing on the bottom lands before it. 

The warnings by telegraph from Huron and other points up the river ga.\e all 
people living on the bottom lands ample time to remove stock and implements to high 
ground. Most people in this seAion (Yankton count}-) availed themselves of the 
warnings, thus saving manj'' thousands of dollars worth of property. The rise, how- 
ever, was so gradual after the first swell and before the ice moved out, that some farmers 
moved back too soon and were caught, though no report of loss of life is heard. The 
bottom lands along the James river are from i to i ^ mile wide, and in some few places 
nearly 2 miles. The depth of w^ater on these bottoms is reported to have averaged 
about 16 feet, while, in some of the narrower places, a depth of 18 and 20 feet is 
reported. As late as May 12 a considerable portion of the bottom lands in the north 
part of Yankton county were still under water. The railroad companies were heavy 
losers by the floods on the James river. No eastern mail was received at Yankton from 
the evening of April 2 until noon of April 10, on which date some mail and express 
packages w^ere transferred in boats. The loss to farmers on the bottom lands, which 
will be in the hundreds of thousands of dollars, comes from the fa6l that the water has 
subsided so slowly that they will lose the use of the ground for crops this year. 

The standard by which floods are gauged in this seAion is the flood of iSSi. In 
comparing the rise on the Missouri this year with that standard, it falls about 20 feet 
short, while the rise on the James river was about 8 feet higher this spring. The par- 
ticular feature of the flood of 1881 was an immense ice gorge, while the flood this year 
is the diredl result of the melting of the deep snow, and the heavy rains which occurred 
at the time the snow melted. 

100. Vermilion to the Little Sioux rivcr^ reported by Mr. U. G. Pnrssell, Observer^ 
Sioux City., lowa^Jitne ig^ i8gj. — No unusual stage of water has occurred at Sioux 
City, the highest point reached being 16.4 feet, which is 2.3 feet below the danger line. 
The breaking tip of the ice in this sedlion of the river occurred on ]\Iarch 19 and 20, 
and took place in a very orderly manner, without the formation of au}' gorges worthy 
of mention, and with a stage of water much lower than the average at breaking-up 



64 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

time. The river rose but 3.9 feet in the twentj'-four hours after the ice went out, and 
then fell gradually to the end of the month, when it again began to rise slowly, reach- 
ing the highest stage of this spring on April 15, nearly four weeks after the break-up. 

In the Big Sioux river occurred the highest water since the flood of 18S1. The 
rise began in the upper waters on March 17, and reached Sioux City and Missouri on 
the morning of the 20th. From Egan, S. Dak., to Sioux Cit}^, a distance of 125 miles, 
the area of country submerged ranged from one-half to three miles wide, the greatest 
width being over the flat country in the vicinity of Elk Point and Jefferson, S. Dak. 
The high water continued from a week to ten days. On the Rock river, which empties 
into the Big Sioux above Hawarden, the flood occurred on March 18 and 19, the water 
rising suddenly, continuing high for about one week, and then declining slowly. The 
overflow was one-half to one mile wide, and ever}^ bridge on that stream was either 
seriously damaged or entirely carried away ; much damage was done to fences and to 
rich farm lands, which were left unfit for cultivation. At Rock Valle}^, Iowa, the water 
was several inches deep in the main street, but the damage was not very great. Every 
bridge on the Milwaukee railroad between Sioux City and Rock Valley was made 
impassable and many of them were carried away. 

loi. Little Sioux river to Atchison, Kans., reported by Mr. L. A. Welsh, Local 
Forecast Ojficial, Omaha, Nebr., June 18, i8gj. — During the period from March 10 to 
16, the ice in the Missouri river and its branches, from the Little Sioux to the Platte, 
broke up and ran out. This sedlion of the Missouri and its tributaries had been frozen 
over since January 23, while that portion south of the Platte to Atchison had, with 
the exception of a few days in the latter part of February, remained open. From the 
date of the breaking up of the ice to March 23, the Missouri rose steadily with a vast 
amount of ice running, but after the 23d it fell steadily to the end of the month. 
During the period from April 9 to 17 the river reached its highest stage, this rise 
being due to the high water in the upper river ; after April 20 all danger of further 
flood was considered over. 

From reports received since the decline of the high water, it is found that the 
flood conditions were greatlj?- exaggerated b3? the press reports during their occurrence. 
There is no evidence whatever that any of the tributary branches, from the Little Sioux 
to Atchison, actuall}^ overflowed their banks, or that any territory adjacent thereto was 
submerged. From the Little Sioux to Florence lake, which is on the west bank of the 
Missouri, and about 6 miles above Omaha, the Missouri was not out of its banks. 
On Sunday, April 11, the river overflowed into Florence lake, filling the lake to such 
an extent as to cause it to overflow into Cut-off lake, which is located just north of 
Omaha and near the Missouri river. It was feared that the overflow into Cut-off lake 
would cause the water from the latter to overflow East Omaha. This critical condi- 
tion continued from April 11 to 17, but, on the latter date, the water began to fall and 
all danger was past. The flowing of the Missouri into Florence lake, and thence into 
Cut-off lake, did no damage whatever, except that some squatters' shanties located on 
the river bottom were submerged for a few days, causing the occupants to move to 
higher and safe ground. This was pradlicall}^ the sum total of damage done b}- the 
spring flood at Omaha. The river bottoms, opposite Nebraska City, St. Joseph, and 
Atchison, were reported under water from April 12 to 18, but no damage resulted 
from this overflow. 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1 897. 65 

102. Atchison to the mouthy reported by Mr. P. Connor., Local Forecast Official., 
Kansas City., Mo..,Jnne 2g, i8gj. — The Missouri river bottoms are about 2 miles wide, 
having more or less bluff on either side. There are two levels of bottom land, called 
the low and high bottoms. An overflow of the high bottoms pra6lically includes every- 
thing from bluff to bluff. The area of low bottom land between Kansas City and 
Boonville is about 106,000 acres and the higher bottom, made up entirely of farming 
land, about 75,000 acres. The area of the high bottoms between Atchison and Kansas 
Cit}' is abovit 13,000 acres. The low places subjedl to the greatest overflow are in the 
neighborhood of Atchison and Leavenworth, at Kansas City and Sibley, from Lexing- 
ton about 20 miles east, 10 miles about Malta Bend, and at Glasgow. 

A great flood occurred in 1S44, and, from the earliest Indian tradition to the present 
time, is the greatest flood in the history of the lower Missouri river. The stage reached 
on the present scale of river measurements was 37 feet on June 20 at Kansas City, 16 
feet above the danger line. At Boonville the river reached 33.6 feet, two and a half 
daj^s later, which was 13.6 feet above the danger line at that place. The flood was 
caused by the coincidence of uniisually heavy and protradled rains with what is known 
as the " June rise," the melted snows from headwaters. It is said that, about the 
middle of April, the rains began to fall in brief showers nearly every other day. After 
a few weeks it began to rain every day. It poured down for days and weeks, almost 
without cessation. The river was rising quite rapidl}', but no danger was anticipated, 
for the oldest settler had never seen a general and destrudlive overflow, and did not 
know that such a thing could occur. The river continued to rise, however, at the rate 
of 12 to 18 inches a day until June 5, when it went over its banks, and the situation 
became alarming. The channel was full of driftwood ; occasionally a log house floated 
down with chickens and turkeys on the roof. In several instances men, women, and 
children were seen on the tops of houses floating hither and thither and turned and 
twisted about by heavy logs and jams, but the people were rescued by parties in skiffs. 

On June 20 the water had reached its highest point, and the next day began to 
fall, but the damage done seemed absolute and the ruin complete. The flood extended 
from bluff to bluff, generally 2 miles. There was not an acre of dry land in the river 
bottoms, from Kansas City to the mouth of the river. The rains subsided and the 
river fell rapidly. A few persons moved back to their farms, in what was then a very 
sparsely settled region and, although it was impossible to do anv farming until the 
latter part of July, it is reliably reported that enough corn was raised that season for 
the people in many places to subsist on. 

Where Kansas City now stands the flood was about 3 miles wide. In what is now 
known as the packing house and wholesale distrift, where the Union depot stands and 
all the switching grounds are located, the water was about 10 feet deep. The flood 
extended over the present site of Armourdale and Argentine, in Kansas, near the mouth 
of the Kaw, but there were few settlements at the junAion of the Missouri and Kaw in 
those days. A deplorable consequence of the great flood was the season of sickness 
Avhich followed, and the high rate of mortalitj-. It is said that it was impossible to find 
a well person on account of the miasma resulting from the decaying animal and vegeta- 
ble matter. Chills and fever prevailed in their most malignant form, followed in the 
winter by spinal meningitis, then called " head disease," which proved very fatal. An 
9 MISS 



66 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

important fadl connedled with this flood was that steamboats going up the river found 
it as low as usual above St. Joseph, Mo. All the tributaries of the Missouri, in the 
state of Missouri, are believed to have overflowed their banks in 1S44 very extensivel_y, 
althou^gh in that early day there was scarcely anything to damage along the streams 
in the way of personal property. 

The flood level at Kansas City was determined and marked on a pier of the Hanni- 
bal bridge, when it was being construAed, by Mr. 0(5lave Chanute, who was supervising 
engineer of constru6lion. The stage was obtained by the collation of 11 or 12 high- 
water marks, preserved by old settlers on both sides of the river. Mr. Chanute states 
that there was practical agreement in the well authenticated marks. Some years after 
the completion of the bridge a few local engineers expressed some doubt as to the 
accuracy of the stage, claiming that it was too high, but Mr. Chanute, who was then 
building a bridge across the Missouri at Sibley, about 30 miles east of Kansas City, 
found the high-water marks at that place to correspond very closely with the estab- 
lished mark at Kansas City, after allowing for the slope of the river. Mr. Chanute 
tested all data worthy of consideration in his determination, so that there is nothing 
upon which to base a doubt of its accuracy. 

In 1897 the Missouri crossed the danger line at Kansas City on the morning o 
April 15, reaching its highest, 22.8 feet, on the 19th, and fell below the danger line on 
the 22d. Harlem, as usual, was more or less flooded. Water leaked into a number of 
cellars in the commercial houses in the west bottoms, rendering pumps necessar}^ The 
flood subsided until the 27th, when the Kaw rose from 4 to 5 feet in thirty-six hours, 
from exceptiona-lly heavy rains in northern Kansas, where all its tributaries are located. 
This caused a second overflow in the west bottoms, and the powerful current cut across 
the Missouri to the Harlem banks, causing higher water in that village than on the 19th. 
Pumps were again put in operation. In Armourdale the sewers overflowed on the streets, 
and some of them were plugged with rock and cement to prevent further overflow. 
Train service from the north was much interferred with b}' floods at Leavenworth dur- 
ing the high water previous to the 19th. Tracks were nearly 2 feet under water in 
places, and numerous lakes were formed on the Government reser\'ation. The flood 
inundated the few bottoms between Kansas City and the mouth of the river, and cut 
away the banks greatly in places between Kansas City and Lexington. 

On April 5 the Grand went over its banks, from heavy rains in northern Mis- 
souri and southern Iowa, and it is said to have been higher than for fourteen years. 
The bottoms were entirely flooded, and all creeks in that sedlion were full and overflow- 
ing. On April 28 very heavy rains in the same seftion caused a second rise, overflow- 
ing the low bottoms, but subsiding rapidly. Thousands of acres of good farming land 
in each county were inundated ; miles of fences were carried away, and the land was 
washed very badly ; in many places small lakes were left, that had not been dried up at 
the date of this report. The damage is estimated at nearly $1,000 to the mile. In 
April the Chariton river overflowed the low bottoms, but caused no damage of import- 
ance, as most crops were planted after the high water. The prime cause of all im- 
portant floods in this secflion is heavy rains in the central Missouri basin. In occa- 
sional years, when a vast quantit}^ of precipitation is stored in the region of headwaters 
during the winter months, and protradled warm weather prevails in that sedlion in the 
early spring, a decided rise is looked for, but nothing of a damaging charadler, unless 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1 897. 67 

supplemented by at least moderate rains. But with a very ordinary flow from the 
upper valley and heavy rains in northern Kansas, Nebraska, western Iowa, and north- 
west Missouri, there is sure to be a flood from Kansas City eastward. 

A great number of squatters here and there along the low bottoms and on accre- 
tions of the river or neutral grounds, who indulge in farming and gardening in a small 
waj^, meet with disaster ever}^ time the least and most insignificant overflow occurs, but 
they do not take such lessons seriousl3\ When the waters subside thej- go at it again, 
and, if the}- can secure subsistence from year to year, their ambition seems to be ful- 
filled. The first to be damaged by high waters at Kansas City are of this class. 
They have to move out with a stage of about 20 feet. At a stage of 2 1 feet the water 
begins to encroach on the low bottoms. At 22 feet it flows into the low places in Har- 
lem, and interferes with the output of a few sewers in the west bottoms. At 23 feet 
Harlem is pretty well flooded, and a considerable portion of the farming lands just 
above the low bottoms ; water leaks into cellars of commercial houses in the west bot- 
toms; sewers become more of a menace than a utility, and in man 3' places have to be 
plugged. An additional foot causes a serious situation, and floods a thousand acres 
of farming lands to the mile from Kansas Cit}- eastward. 

The greatest damage occurs when the overflow happens late in Ma\' or in June, as 
it washes out all the crops, and, b}- the time the waters recede, it is generalh' too 
late to replant, and the condition of the soil is such that, at best, but little can be 
accomplished. In a great number of instances cloudbursts cause immense damage to 
farm and stock interests. A cloudburst near Saliua, Kans., in Julv, 1S95, along the 
Smoky Hill Fork, caused the stream to invmdate 5,000 acres, and the damage for 40 
miles along the river was greater than that of all previovis overflows in that secflion. 

Below Boonville the Missouri did not reach the danger line this spring. 

THE ARKANSAS RIVER. 

103. Sources to Dodge Ci/y, Kans.^ reported by Mr. G. T. Todd, Observer, Dodge 
City, Kans., April 75, i8gj. — From Dodge Citj', westward, the bed of the iVrkansas 
river has been almost dr}' since last July. The river was very low all through the 
winter and spring, and at the present time has an average width of about 10 feet, and 
a depth of a foot to a foot and a half. This is the usual condition of the river at this 
season, and there will probabl}- be little change before the end of May. 

104. Dodge City to the southern border of Kansas, reported by Mr. F. L. Johnson., 
Observer, JVichita, Kans., June 20, iSgy. — In Kansas the Arkansas river is a broad, 
shallow stream, swift when up, but frequentl}' dry for months at a time. About the 
only time it is high is when the heav}^ rains of Maj^ and June and the melting snow in 
the mountains of Colorado cause the high water localh' known as the "June rise." 
This usually occurs during the first decade of June, and the rise lasts from five to ten 
days. It comes suddenly and subsides slowl}' , and is usuall}- confined to the Arkansas 
river, the tributaries being exempt. Although this rise comes suddenl}^, it does not 
come unexpeftedl}- ; it requires about five da^'sfor the rise to reach Wichita from Colo- 
rado, three from Dodge City, and one from Hutchinson. It takes from ten to fourteen 
days for a sudden rise of water at Wichita to reach Fort Smith. Irrigating ditches in 
the western part of Kansas take considerable water from the river. In prolonged dry 
periods all the water sinks into the sandy bed of the stream before reaching Hutchinson. 



68 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

From Hutchinson to AVichita the river bed is, in dry times, a Avaste of drifting sand ; 
but at Wichita the tributary stream, Little Arkansas river, which never goes entirely 
dry, adding its small contribution, makes the Arkansas river, from there on, a stream 
in faA as well as in name, except in extraordinarily prolonged drouths, when onl}- occa- 
sional pools remain. 

The bottom lands along the Arkansas river vsLVy in width from i to 3 miles, and 
the river banks are from 6 to 10 feet high, as far south as Wichita. South of Wichita 
the banks are higher, on the left bank considerably higher, and the bottom lands 
narrower. The principal tributaries are the Pawnee at Larned, the Little Arkansas 
at Wichita, the Ninnescah, 35 miles south of Wichita, and the Walnut at Arkansas 
Cit}', Kans. The slope of the land is east or southeast and quite marked, so that the 
streams are generally rapid. By reason of the almost impervious sod that covered the 
virgin prairie, the greater part of the heav}^ rains flowed at once into the streams. As 
more and more of the prairie sod is broken, and many little runs are dammed to make 
ponds, less and less water flows into the stream ; so that now their beds are usuall}- 
broad and deep enough to hold even the flood waters. In Sedgwick count}- the pro- 
portion of broken land to the whole surface is about one-third. The percentage of 
broken land decreases westward. The importance of this change in the land surface 
on the frequency of floods is scarcely appreciated. Before the land is broken the water 
runs off the virgin sod almost as from the roof of a house ; after the sod is broken and 
the land cultivated for a few years the soil absorbs water with the avidity of a sponge. 

There has been no flood in the Arkansas this spring; in faA the usual June rise 
has failed, so far, to come. There is but one flood recorded at Wichita which deserves 
mention ; after a heavy rain for nine hours on Ma}' 17 or iS, 1S77, there followed two 
days of clear weather, and then about the 20th a heavy rain fell for fourteen hours. The 
water in the iVrkansas was up and the river had been bank-full for several da^'s. On 
May 21, 1S77, the water of the Little Arkansas river, unable to discharge into the 
Arkansas, began to overflow its banks at Pine street, and ran down through the town, 
flooding the first floor of the Occidental hotel at the corner of Main and Second streets. 
The water was highest on the 22d, and began to recede on the 23d. The flooding of 
the town was due to water from the Little Arkansas onl3^ Here in town the " Big " 
river merel}- refilled to a depth of about 3 feet a low tradl about 300 feet wide, that had 
once been a part of its channel. Three or four miles south of town, the flood spread out 
over the valley from 3 to 5 miles, and so continued for about 12 miles down, the over- 
flow being almost wholly on the right bank. The damage, aside from the inconven- 
ience, appears to have been small. 

105. Soiitliern border of Kansas to Dardajielle^ Ark.^ reported by Mr. J. J. O^Doii- 
nell, Observer^ Fort Siuit/i, Ark., June 20, i8gy. — There has been no flood in the 
Arkansas river this year between the southern line of the state of Kansas and the month 
of the Verdigris river, 141 miles west of Fort Smith. Floods or overflows are rare in 
this portion of the Arkansas river, and its principal tributaries in this reach, the Salt 
Fork and Cimarron rivers. The Salt Fork has never overflowed. The extraordinar}- 
rain and reported cloudburst in April, 1897, in the vicinitj^ of Guthrie, and in the 
vallej' of Cottonwood creek, resulted in floods and overflows at manj- places between- 
Guthrie and the mouth of the Cimarron river. From the mouth of the Verdigris river 
to Fort Smith several large rivers empt}- into the Arkansas, and eastward to Dar- 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 69 

danelle manjr creeks of considerable importance. Along this reacli of the river over- 
flows and floods are quite frequent, occasionall}^ doing great damage to crops, railroad 
property, stock, and lumber. The banks have been overflowed, except between Pine}- 
and Dardanelle on the north bank, between Patterson's bluff and Morrison's bluif on 
the south bank, and between Redland and Wilson's rock. 

106. Dardanelle to the nioiith^ reported by Mr. F. H. Clarke^ Local Forecast 
Official^ Little Rock., Ark.., J'l'i/^ 20., iSgj. — The Opossum Fork levee in Desha count}^ 
runs to high land on Amos Ba3'0u ridge, but the flood of 1S97 passed over the ridge, 
above the levee, and there was also a small break in the levee, 3 miles from the upper end. 
The Arkansas river levee stops at a point nearl}- opposite the head of the Opossum 
Fork levee, and leaves a space of about 10 miles, which is not prote6fed hy levee, and 
the water backs up to a point near Watson. There was no flood in the Arkansas river 
during 1897, and no breaks in the le^'ee. All the water that flooded Arkansas territory 
came from the Mississippi. 

THE RED RIVER. 

107. The Red river ^ reported by Mr. Chas. Davis ^ Observer^ Shreveport^ La., 
June 16., i8gj. — Copious and well distributed rains having fallen throughout the valley- 

of the Red river, an exceptionall3' long period of ver)- low water was terminated during 
the first days of Januar}', 1897, and, while there were decreasing stages during Feb- 
ruary, the stream, for the most part, continued navigable until heavy rains in March 
gave a rapidly rising river, which, in the opinion of many, betokened a disastrous over- 
flow. This opinion proved to have been erroneous, as the highest stage at Fulton was 
only 0.6 foot above the danger line (28 feet), while Shreveport's maximum reading was 
5 feet below the danger line (29 feet). Although the readings in some instances were 
slightl}' above the point at which danger begins, farm work did not suffer interruption, 
and the spring of 1897 will be remembered as a very favorable one for those engaged 
in both river and agricultural pursuits along the Red river. 

THE LOAVER MISSISSIPPI RI\'ER. 

108. St. Louis, ALo., to Chester, III., reported by Mr. H. C. Fraiikenfield, Local 
Forecast Official, St. Louis, Mo., May 20, iSgj. — In the city of St. Louis there was no 
overflow, and no damage was done except a very little by seep water. In places along 
the levee the railroad tracks were covered, but no inconvenience resulted. Opposite 
the city, in Illinois, the water reached the town of West Venice, running through some 
of the streets on April 10, and also flooded a couple of farms. The lowlands back of 
Bast St. Louis, 111., were also overflowed bv the backwater through Cahokia creek, and 
some portions of the village of East Carondelet, 111., were submerged on April 11, but 
the damage was very slight. From St. Louis to Chester there was no flood worth}- of 
mention, perhaps 1,500 acres of low bottom lands being o^■erflowed during the first half 
of April. 

109. Chester to Neiu Ahxdrid, J/c?., reported bv Mr. P. H. Smyth, Observer, Cairo, 
LIL, May 2g, iSgj. — From Chester to Cairo, 111., onh' the ver}^ lowest bottoms were 
flooded, and very little damage resulted. At Cairo the levees kept in good condition 
throughout the flood. Seep water, augmented bv rains and waste water, graduall}- 



b 



7° 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



increased from about the middle of Februarj^, and by the end of March had risen to 
within lo inches of the sidewalks of the graded streets. The maximnm height of the 
seep water was reached on April 13. Nearly all of the graded streets were covered, or 
partly covered, and on many of the streets the sidewalks were several inches under 
water. Over 50 houses, located in the lower portions of the town, had to be vacated on 
account of water being in them, and there were as many more that were badly flooded, but 
were occupied. This state of affairs lasted for over a month. The authorities had put 
in operation two drainage pumps to relieve the city of the water, and after the pumps 
got to working the seep water was very materially reduced. All the ungraded por- 
tions of Cairo were flooded from the latter part of Febrnar}' until the middle of May, 
and in some fof the lower bottoms the seep water remained until Maj' 25. During the 
prevalence of seep water one old man and two children were drowned. 




The flood of 1S97 at Cairo, 111. 

From Cairo to New Madrid, Mo., both banks of the river were submerged, except 
where the levees held, and even then the backwater from the breaks covered the 
country. At Cokirabus, Ky., the river lacked 4 inches of being as high as in 1883, 
and at Hickman, Ky., the flood of this spring was not as great as the floods of 1882, 
1883, and 1884, although about the same area in Fulton county has been submerged. 
Washouts occurred on the Iron Mountain railroad on March ig, causing damage to the 
extent of about $50,000. On the west side of the river about five-sixths of Mississippi 
cotinty was submerged, and about one-half of New Madrid county. Birds Point, Mo., 
was completelj' overflowed and pradlically abandoned during the flood. Man}' thou- 
sands of acres of wheat in Mississippi county were drowned out and ruined. At Bel- 
mont, Mo., the river reached a stage one-half inch higher than ever known before. 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 71 

no. New Madrid to Helena^ Ark.^ reported l)v Mr. S. C. Emery ^ Observer ., Mevi- 
p/iis., Tenn.^ May /j, iSgj. — The beginning of the flood in this sedlion dates from Feb- 
rnary 8. For ten days preceding that date a rapid decline had been in progress, and 
on February 7 the low stage of 8 feet was recorded on the Memphis gauge. A rapid 
rise then set in, which continued up to the 20th, when the stage was 25.1 feet. This 
flood wave came from the upper Ohio river, the crest passing Cincinnati on February 
II, with a 44.4-foot stage, and reaching Cairo on the 17th, with a gauge reading of 
34.7 feet, a rise of 20 feet in twelve days. At Memphis the wave was thirteen days 
in reaching its highest point, the rise amounting to 17.1 feet. The highest water was 
reached at Helena on the 21st, the gauge reading 33.2 feet, and the height of the flood 
wave was 18.7 feet, which was reached after a rise covering a period of twelve days. 

It will be noted that the crest of this wave was exadlly ten days in passing from 
Cincinnati to Helena, and, except a slight depression at Memphis, the same height was 
maintained throughout the entire distance, and the same number of days intervened 
between the first rise and the point of decline. While the flood wave noted above was 
in progress, a second and more extensive one was moving down the Ohio, receiving on 
its way heavy additions from the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, which were raised 
to flood height by heavy rains throughout the region drained by them. All of the 
above rivers began to rise simultaneously, and with great rapidity. Meanwhile, rains 
throughout the valleys of the Lower Mississippi and the Ohio continued with increased 
frequency and volume. The last great flood wave was first felt at New Madrid on 
February 24, and at Memphis .on February 26, after a very slight fall from the pre- 
ceding one. For one week the rise over this sedlion of the river averaged about i foot 
per day, and afterward from 0.4 to 0.6 foot daily. 

By March 6 the lowlands about Memphis were under water, and the water began 
to flow over the banks on the Arkansas shore. At 7 a. m., March 9, the stage at Mem- 
phis was' 32.9 feet, and at 11 a. m. of that day the danger line had been reached. At 
this time the greatest excitement prevailed in this se6lion ; people occupying the low- 
lands were moving out, and large sums were being expended in the protedlion of 
property against an overflow, which now seemed imminent. Hundreds of men were 
set to work on the levees, as upon their stability depended the fate of the entire St. 
Francis basin. On March 12 the town of Hopefield, Ark., opposite Memphis, was sub- 
merged, and most property was removed to places of safety. The 13th of March 
was an eventful day in this section. On that day, Marion, the county seat of Critten- 
den county. Ark., and the adjacent land for 3 miles from the river was flooded. There 
were in Marion 500 people who resided there, and as many more who had been driven 
there by the high water in the bottoms. This place was formerly a city of refuge for 
people in that sedlion on account of the dike aroiind it, which had withstood all pre- 
vious floods, and was built several inches above the previous high-water mark, but, at 
about 8 p. m. on the 13th, the water began to pour over the lower places in the dike, 
and in a short time there were from 4 to 6 feet of water over the entire town. On the 
first-floor of the courthouse the water stood 18 inches deep, and there was scarcely a 
habitable house in town. On the same day, about 7 p. m., 300 feet of the old state 
levee at Butler's plantation, 4 miles north of Nodena, Ark., gave way. The break was 
15 feet deep, and in a very short time the whole country about Nodena was covered to 
such an extent that the people were obliged to abandon their homes, and seek safet}/ on 



72 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

the embankments, or whatever elevations could be found. In man3' instances it was 
found impossible to save even the stock, which was left to perish. 

By March i6 the entire territorj' between Memphis and Crowle^-s ridge, which is 
40 miles west of the river, was under water, and the work of rescuing the people was 
going on day and night. From every diredlion came reports of unexpected and 
unprecedented disaster. Localities that were expeAed, up to the last moment, to with- 
stand the overflow, were at last under water, and the people found themselves hemmed 
in with no means of escape, and all they could do was to await, frequentl}' on the roofs 
of their dwellings, the coming of the rescuing boats. At Marion, 400 people were 
found lined up on the railroad embankment, over which an occasional wave swept; 
and along the railroad lines, as far as the relief boats could penetrate, the same con- 
dition of affairs existed. Men, women, and children, and stock, were found, chilled b}- 
the cold, and standing in water, ranging from foot to neck deep. 

On March 17 a break occurred in the levee at Caruthersville, Mo., which soon 
became 700 feet wide, and sent a vast body of water down toward Mississippi count}', 
Ark. Another break occurred, iS miles south of Caruthersville. The town of 
Osceola, Ark., 100 miles north of Memphis, was covered to a depth of about 3 feet, 
and opposite, in Tennessee, the water extended 15 miles inland. The town of Gold- 
dust had from 3 to 4 feet of water in its streets. Ashport was also badl}' flooded. 

By March 18 the situation was extremelj- critical ; the river at New Madrid was 
then nearly i foot above the highest known stage; at Memphis it had reached a point 
3.8 feet above danger line, the gauge on that day reading 36.8 feet, a rise of 9.5 feet 
since March i. Five breaks had occurred in the levee near Nodena ; in fadl, about 
2j^ miles of the old levee at that place had been swept away. The most serious break 
was the one at Sans Souci, which occurred during the afternoon of the 19th. For two 
weeks the citizens of Sans Souci had been working day and night to keep the water 
outside the levee, a break in which meant the devastation of the country below. The 
strain on the levee finally became too great, and a break occurred, through which the 
water rushed with tremendous velocity, and, though ever}^ effort was made to close up 
the crevasse, it steadil}- widened, and the whole countrj- back of Sans Souci was soon 
flooded. 

This break, and the general downfall of the old state levee near Nodena, caused 
the river at Memphis to come to a stand at 37.1 feet on the morning of March 19. On 
the same day the gauge at Memphis was carried away by the flood, and it was found 
necessary to use the old gauge, located about a half mile north of the one destro3'ed. 
This old gauge was found to read 0.6 foot higher than the one formerl}- used, and, in 
order to make the readings harmonize with those pre^'iously taken, this amount was 
deducted from the adlual readings from and after the 19th. This stage continued at 
Memphis for three days, when the river began to decline, but so slowly that, after 
thirty-three daj's, the decrease onl}- amounted to 2 feet. Had the levees above remained 
whole, it is likely that at least another foot would have been added to the Alemphis 
record, as the rise continued at New Madrid up to the 29th, or ten days after the maxi- 
mum height had been reached at Memphis. 

At the beginning of the flood the current in the river was ver}^ rapid, estimated at 
8 to 10 miles per hour, but, as the country below became filled, the velocity- of the cur- 
rent decreased to half as much. The water which left the main river through the 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 



73 



numerous crevasses and passed tlirough the St. Francis returned at Helena, which 
accounts for the continued rise at that place after the fall had set in at Memphis. 
From March 19 to 25 the St. Francis bottom and the lowlands along the Tennessee 
shore filled rapidl}', and the maximum height of the water over the flooded territory 
was reached by the 25th. On the Tennessee side the water extended farther inland 
than it was ever known to do during an}? previous overflow ; in Dyer county the water 
covered a large tradl of rich farm land, which heretofore had been considered above the 
possibilit_y of an overflow. 

By March 31 the flood had completed its work of destru(?tion over all the territory 
from Memphis northward, and the waters were slowly receding. South of Memphis, 
in the vicinity of Helena, the situation was still extremely critical, and every possible 
effort was made to meet the impending crisis. On Sunda}?, April 4, the flrst break in 
the Yazoo levee system occurred at Flower lake, opposite the mouth of the St. Francis 
river, and on the farm of Mr. F. M. Norfleet. The break occurred at 7.30 a. m., and, 
by II a. m., it had grown from a few feet to 500 feet in width, and two days later the 
crevasse was 2,000 feet wide. Through this gap a mighty river was emptying itself on 
to some of the richest cotton lands in the state, and soon the southeast portion of Tunica 
county was flooded. This crevasse completed the destrudlion in this seftion, and the 
river at Helena fell from that time on. 




The Mississippi in flood near Greenville, Miss. 

The money value of the property destroyed can not be estimated at this time, but 
it will amount to a very large sum. The heaviest sufferers from the overflow are those 
engaged in farming, and owners of farm lands upon which small tenants, occupying 
frail dwellings, had been established. These dwellings have in many cases been 
washed away, and a large number of those remaining are beyond repair. Fences are 
washed away ; farm implements and seed destro3'ed ; and live stock drowned in great 

10 MISS 



74 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

numbers. Those who could do so, drove their stock to mounds and ridges, where such 
were available, and others built rafts upon which cattle and hogs were kept until the 
water subsided, or they were removed to places of safety. In many places, however, 
the flood came so suddenly and unexpedledly, that there was no time to save anything 
but human life, and cattle were left to drown. Many of the cattle and horses, colleAed 
on mounds and other high places, were killed by the dreaded buffalo gnats, which are 
one of the usual results of an overflow in this se6lion. Another item of damage to 
farm property is the deposit of sand, which in some cases is several feet deep, and 
renders the land unfit for cultivation. The damage to railroad property throughout 
the St. Francis basin and the Delta country is very great. Several railroads leading 
out of Memphis were kept in operation by building a false strufture, from i to 2 feet 
high, above the track, and placing rails upon this for the passage of trains. 

Of the previous overflows, that of 1882 is considered, in this sedlion, to have been 
the greatest, and all comparisons are made with that flood. In that year the water 
extended over a greater area in the northern portion of the St. Francis basin, and to a 
greater depth than during the present overflow, as the levees kept out a great amount 
of water this year from that se6lion. The opposite side of the river, in Tennessee, 
throughout the counties of Obion, lyake, and Dyer, which had no levee proteftion, 
received the water which formerly went into the St. Francis, and, as a consequence, 
those sedlions were flooded many miles farther inland than ever before. That portion 
of Arkansas extending from Mississippi county south was covered to a greater depth 
than in 1882, or any previous year, and the depth increased as one traveled southward, 
until the high ground near Helena was reached. A farther spreading westward was 
prevented by Crowleys ridge. That portion of the St. Francis basin where the inunda- 
tion was pra6lically complete is comprised within the following area : The whole of 
Crittenden and Mississippi counties, about half of St. Francis and Poinsett, and nearlj^ 
all of Lee counties. This se6lion was flooded to a depth of from 3 to 7 feet. The 
population of the five counties named is 45,000, of which 25,000 are blacks. Over 
200,000 acres of land are tilled in this area, of which 90,000 are devoted to cotton, the 
remainder being about equally divided between corn and potatoes. Crittenden and 
Mississippi counties have 40,000 acres of cotton land, and produce about 30,000 bales 
of cotton annually. 

III. EffcfJ of the St. Francis Icvec. — Before compai4sons can be made between the 
present flood and those which have occurred in former years, it is necessary to take 
into account the changed conditions which have resulted from the constru6lion of the 
Arkansas levees. Since 1890 there has been built a line of levee along the west bank 
of the Mississippi river, extending from Point Pleasant, Mo., south to Pecan point, a 
distance of 125 miles. The purpose of the levee is to protedl the St. Francis bottom, 
the greater portion of which was formerly subjedl to an annual overflow. Of this 
bottom much is not under cultivation, considerable areas being covered by a succession 
of swamps and lakes having a heavy growth of gum, sycamore, and cypress trees. In 
former years the bottom had been flooded more or less whenever the Mississippi, at 
Cairo, reached a 41 or 42-foot stage. The water, after leaving the main river, passed 
into the St. Francis basin, through which runs the Little and St. Francis rivers; 
through these channels it again found its waj^ to the Mississippi at a point about 12 
miles north of Helena, Ark. The effedl of leveeing the west bank of the Mississippi, 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1897. 



75 



in front of the St. Francis bottom, is to compel tlie water to pass down the Mississippi, 
from Cairo to Helena. 

In the following table a comparison is made of several earlier floods with that of 
this year. The floods occurring from 18S2 to 1SS6 reached about the same stage at 
Cairo as the flood of this 3^ear. The maximum stages at Cairo, Fulton, A/[emphis, and 
Helena, during the floods of 1882-S6, together with their mean, and the corresponding 
stages of this year's flood, are presented. 



Year. 



1S82. 
1883. 
1884. 
18S6. 

Mean 

1897. 



Cairo, 111. 






51-8 
52.2 
51.8 
51.0 

51-7 
51-6 



Fulton, Mo. 






36.7 
36.3 
35-7 
35-4 

36.0 

37-4 



15- I 
^5-9 
16. I 
15.6 

15-7 
14.2 



Memphis, Tenn. 



Helena, Ark. 






35- 
34. 
34- 
34- 



34-7 
37.1 



o 






16.8 
17.4 
17.6 
16.2 

17.0 

14-5 



47.2 
46.9 
47.0 
48. I 

47-3 
51-5 



:0 






4.6 

5-3 
4.8 
2.9 

4.4 

o. I 



The average difference in stage, in the earlier floods, between Cairo and Fulton 
was 15.7 feet; between Cairo and Memphis, 17.0 feet; and between Cairo and Helena, 
4.4 feet. The building of the levee has caused a decrease in the difference between 
those points ; that is, it has raised the stage at Memphis about 2.5 feet above what it 
would have been, had the water been left to flow over the lowlands of Arkansas. So, 
instead of a difference of 17.0 feet between the Cairo and Memphis stages, we now 
have about 14.5 feet, and, had it not been for the breaking of the levee, it is probable 
that this difference would have been lessened at least an additional foot. In other 
words, the levees, if kept inta6l, would result in some 3 feet more water at Memphis 
than under former conditions. At Helena, the change is still more marked, and the 
former difference of 4 feet has entirely disappeared, and, had it not been for the great 
crevasse at Flower lake, the Helena flood crest would probably have been considerably 
above that at Cairo. 

112. Helena to Vicksburg, Miss.^ reported by Mr. R. J. Hyatt, Local Forecast 
Official, Vicksburg, Miss., July 2, iSgy. — At all points in this sedlion the Mississippi 
was below the danger line on March i, but the high water above Memphis and the 
high stage of the Ohio were viewed with concern b}' the people along the Lower Missis- 
sippi. Timely warnings that the river would reach danger-line stages and above, were 
promptly issued and widely circulated, in order that due preparation might be made for 
the coming flood waters. These warnings were heeded by man}-', and no complaint in 
regard to them has been heard on any side. The planters, cattle raisers, levee boards, 
railroads, river men, and other interested parties, went to work in earnest to arrange for 
the high water in sight, and for a probable overflow of the lowlands in this sedliou. 
These warnings were kept up during the month, and were supplemented by warnings 
from the Washington office, with good effeft. 

The flood proved to be the most disastrous on record. The people commenced 



76 FLOODS OF THF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

early to move their stock and other movable property to places of safety. Some, how- 
ever, waited until the last minute before moving, depending on the stability of the 
levees, and, consequently, much valuable stock and other property were lost, which 
might have been saved had the warnings been heeded earlier. The crops, of course, 
were ruined by the overflow, but nearly all of the land was replanted as the water 
receded. Railroad communication was interrupted, and many points were only acces- 
sible by boat. Happily no lives were lost, although there were many narrow escapes 
from drowning, and much personal inconvenience and suffering were experienced b}' 
all. The greater portion of the levees remained inta6l, and a number of mounds and 
scattered strips of land were not overflowed. Upon these the people took refuge, with 
their stock and household effedls, while a large number of people were qi:artered in the 
cities and towns not overflowed, living in tents furnished by the Government, and 
forming camps, where they were supplied with food and clothing until the land was 
uncovered. The deposit left by the flood has enriched the land, and cotton and corn, 
planted as the water subsided, have done well. 

113. Vicksbiirg to the inoutli, reported by Mr. R. E. Kerkam^ Local Forecast 
Official, New Orleans, La., June 18, iSgj. — The rapid rise to past the danger line, at 
Cairo, early in March, combined with the heavy rains, that fell over the Central Valley 
during the middle of March, was a premonition of the coming high waters. Warn- 
ings were issued, during the middle of March, to threatened distridls in northern 
Louisiana, and the press of the state was served with special warnings and bulletins, 
proclaiming the coming of a disastrous flood wave. All methods of dissemination of 
the warnings were utilized, the telegraph and telephone lines, the mails, and the press, 
and it is a safe assertion that there was no intelligent person in the threatened districft 
who was not fully alive to the existing danger. The fadl that the levees had been 
strengthened and raised some 3 feet above the highest previous known waters, gave a 
certain confidence to many who could scarce credit the extent of the coming flood, but 
the reiteration of the warnings of the Weather Bureau, day by day, resulted in general 
work on the levees, strenghtening and raising them to hold the stage forecast. 

The first crevasse of the season occurred on bayou La Fourche, near Raceland, on 
March 30, but the damage was only local. On April 2, a second crevasse occurred on 
bayou La Fourche, 4 miles below Lockport, entailing some loss to the plantations in 
the vicinity, but no damage of serious consequence, owing to the fa6l that no great area 
in that sedlion was in cultivation. The third and most serious break on ba3'ou La 
Fourche occurred April 16, i mile below La Fourche Crossing, flooding more cultiv- 
able land than either of the other two. The waters from the crevasses overflowed a 
considerable area of triangular shape extending from Thibodeaux southward, over 
adjoining portions of Terre Bonne and La Fourche parishes to the Gulf. 

The first break along the Mississippi, below Vicksburg, occurred in the private 
levee surrounding Davis island. The island has an area of 5,000 acres, and a popula- 
tion of nearl}^ 2,500, mostly negroes. The entire island was submerged, but all stock 
was removed, and there was little loss of property and no lives. At 10 p. m., April 16, 
a break occurred in the Biggs levee on the Louisiana side, 4 miles below Delta. This 
was the first break in the Louisiana line on the Mississippi. It widened with such 
great rapidity that all attempt at closing it was out of the question, and in four hours 
it was 1,000 feet wide and cutting very fast. The engineers' measurement of this 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1 897. 



n 



crevasse, on April 23, gave the width as 2,200 feet, a depth averaging 16 feet, and a 
current of 5 miles per hour. 




The Biggs crevasse, 4 miles below Delta, La. 

On April 19, a break occurred in the Reid levee, i-^ mile below the Biggs. This 
crevasse widened to about 600 feet, with a depth of 16 feet. The Glasscock levee, 20 
miles below Natchez, on the Louisiana side, also broke on the same day. On the next 
day this break had reached a width of i ,000 feet, after which but little cutting occurred. 
These breaks flooded nearly all of Madison, Tensas, and Concordia parishes, and, by 
the last of April, had filled the basin at the head of the Atchafalaya, and threatened 
the portions of the state lying to the southward. A small break occurred at Paulin J. 
Coco's place on bayou des Glaizes on April 29, but was soon closed. 

From April 24 to May 12 a series of breaks occurred in the levee at Burton's saw- 
mill, in the lower portion of Baton Rouge. The first break, on April 24, was 20 feet 
wide. Material and men being right at hand, the break was soon closed, and the dam- 
age was confined to the yard of the mill. On Ma}^ 8 another break occurred in the 
same stretch of levee, but was soon repaired, before doing serious damage. On the 
loth, the third break, 60 feet wide and 4 feet deep, occurred at i a. m., but the ends 
were secured. This was followed on the nth hy another break. Work was begun 
on a box levee around the whole stretch, and the water was confined by the night of 
the nth. On the 12th, the fifth and last break occurred, under the dry-kiln of the 
mill, which stood across the line. This proved to be the most serious of all, and was 
not closed until the mud box was completed on the 20th. During the time of these 
breaks, the lower portion of the city of Baton Rouge, known as Catfish town, was 
flooded with water to a depth, var3'ing from a few inches to several feet; but little 
damage was done to the surrounding plantations, as the water readily found its way to 
bayou Manchac, and was carried off. 

Another series of breaks, three in number, occixrred below the city of New Orleans 



78 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

on April 26, 27, and 29. The first, on Melrose plantation, on the west bank of the 
Mississippi, 9 miles below Scola's canal, and 49 miles below New Orleans, occurred at 
10:30 p. m. of April 26; its width was 35 feet and depth 4 feet. At i a. m. of the 27th, 
a break, 50 feet wide and 6 feet deep, occurred on the Gucanard place, near Nairn. 
Both breaks were closed on the 27th. On April 29, the third break occurred on the 
place of Mr. Charles Bally, near Home Place, and was closed at a late hour that night. 
The damage from these breaks was only local, and confined mostly to submerged truck 
farms, in their immediate vicinity. 

On May 2 a break occurred in the private levee surrounding the Angola planta- 
tion of 6,000 acres, opposite the mouth of Red river. The overflow was confined to 
this plantation, which was completely submerged. Little loss occurred, however, as 
all stock that was not needed in working the levee had been removed, and there was 
little dif&culty in taking off in safety what was left on the plantation. 

On May 9 four breaks occurred on bayou des Glaizes, in what is known as the 
Ten Mile levee, at Longmire's, 2 miles above Hamburg. It opened to a width of 100 
feet, and a depth of 5 feet. An attempt was made on the next day to close it, and, by 
May 12, the cribbing was all in, and the break confined to 80 feet; it was then aban- 
doned on account of the dirt being under water, and the labor too great to bring it from 
a long distance by boat. The second break occurred at Paulin J. Coco's, 3 miles above 
Hamburg; the width was 600 feet and the depth 2 to 3 feet. Two breaks, both small, 
occurred at Mrs. Bruilty's, 4 miles above Hamburg. Owing to lack of material, no 
effedlive attempt could be made to close them, and the breaks merged into one crevasse, 
aggregating 2,800 feet in length on May 23. 

The banks of bayou des Glaizes, being high, were not leveed until recentl}^, when 
the encroaching waters, inclosed by levees elsewhere, reached unprecedented heights 
and the residents construAed small levees to withhold the water as it rose. The 
general opinion is that these breaks overflowed a great area of country. In realit}- the 
engineer detailed to report the amount of ground covered ascertained that the water 
from these crevasses flooded the large loop of the baj-ou, and the western bank of bayou 
des Glaizes and the Atchafalaya river down to about Melville, and extended inland 
from a few hundred feet to a mile or so. While a large portion of this sedlion was 
under water, it did not come from the breaks, but was backwater from the numerous 
small bayous and creeks, which always overflow when it rains. Rain fell intermit- 
tently, but in considerable amounts, in this vicinity, from May 8 to 13, softening the 
levees; and the rain, with the windstorm of the 9th, was the diredf cause of the breaks 
just described. 

The last crevasse of the flood occurred on May 30, at Conrad Point, 8 miles by 
river below the city of Baton Rouge. This break opened to a width of 240 feet, and a 
depth ranging from 13 to 17 feet. The water flooded the portion of Bast Baton Rouge 
parish between the river and the hills, from 5 miles above the crevasse to ba3-ou 
Manchac below. Owing to the high velocity of the current, and the narrow batture in 
front of the break, the chances of closing it were slight, but, b}' hard work, a well 
organized force succeeded in building a crib around the entire opening, and closing it 
by the night of June 7. 

In point of area overflowed and damage done, the flood of 1897 will not compare 
with that of 1882 or 1890. The area, this year, is similar to that of 1S92, except that 



SPRING FLOOD OF 1 897. 79 

no breaks occurred along the east bank from Ascension parish to below New Orleans, 
while the lower portion of the La Fourche basin was overilowed this year but was not 
in 1S92. The area is greater than that of 1893. 

The loss of stock was comparatively small, as the planters had timeU* warning, and 
made preparations for saving their stock, when overflow became imminent. The loss 
of poultry, considerable quantities of feed, farming implements, and hogs, was perhaps 
greater than that of other properties. Many planters had seed in the ground, while others 
delayed planting as much as possible, fearing loss of their seed and labor b}' overflow. 
The losses of first planting were considerable, but the rapid decline in the river and 
backwater, permitted considerable replanting early in June, and the loss of staple crops, 
cotton and corn, will be reduced to the minimum b}' the favorable growing weather for 
the late seeded crops. In the ba3'ou La Fourche distriA, the few plantations, situated 
immediately on the banks of that stream, suffered almost complete destruAion of cane 
plantings and stubble. Loss of life was reported in many cases, but further investiga- 
tions proved the rumors to be without foundation, and no case is at present known of 
loss of life due to the overflow. 

In order to better stud}^ the flood and follow its crest, special river-gauge readings 
were received from Natchez, Miss., Bayou Sara, La., and Donaldsonville, La., from 
March 25 to June 15. These readings show that the river passed the danger line at 
Natchez on March 26, reaching the highest record of 49.8 feet on March 29, at which 
point it remained until May 3. The decline then began, the water receding below the 
danger line on June 4. At Bayou Sara the river was above the established danger line of 
28 feet during the entire time reports were received. The highest stage at that point 
was 43'".8 feet on May 14 and 15. Donaldsonville reported stages above the danger 
line from the first report, on March 25, to June 12; the highest stage was 32.8 feet on 
May 13 to 17. 

At New Orleans readings were taken at S a. m. and 8 p. m. during the dangerous 
stages. The danger line of 16 feet was reached March 27, with a steady rise to Maj' 
8, when the stage at 8 p. m. was 19.6 feet. Slight fludluations occurred on the suc- 
ceeding three days, and 19.6 feet was again recorded at the evening observations on the 
the 9th and nth. On the 13th, the highest morning reading, 19.5 feet, was recorded, 
and it could not be said that the river showed an adlual decline until after this date, as 
it is probable that its stages were slightly infliienced b}' wind and tide, causing slightlj- 
higher readings, as a rule, in the evening. The river again fell to the danger line 
June 9. 



PI. I. 



DRAINAGE BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPR RIVER 




H!eA8 3DAM!.Af3G 



! 





PI. III. 
















































NORMAL HVDROGRAPHS 


-OR THE YEAR. 


(Stages 


referred to the 


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PI. IV. 



NORMAL ANNUAL PRECIPITATION. 




1^ 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR JANUARY. 



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NORMAL PREiCIPfTATION FOR MARCH. 



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PI. VIII. 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR APRIL. 




NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR MAY, 



139* 



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NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR JULY. 




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NORMAL PRECI 



PITATION FOR AUGUST. 



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PI. XfV. 



NORMAL PREQIPITATION FOR OCTOBER. 




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Pi. XVI. 



NORMAL PRECIPITATION FOR DECEMBER. 



M»* JOr 105* U)3* 




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PI. XXXVII. 



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